SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTIONUNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBulletin 195
LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICANNUTHATCHES, WRENS, THRASHERSAND THEIR ALLIESORDER PASSERIFORMES
BYARTHUR CLEVELAND BENTTaunlon, Massachusetts
UNITED STATESGOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICEWASHINGTON : 1948
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing OfficeWashington 25. D. C - Price J1.7S
ADVERTISEMENTThe scientific publications of the National Museum include twoseries, known, respectively, as Proceedings and Bulletm.The Proceedings series, begun in 1878, is intended primarily as amedium for the publication of original papers, based on the collectionsof the National Museum, that set forth newly acquired facts in biology,anthropology, and geology, with descriptions of new forms and re-visions of limited groups. Copies of each paper, in pamphlet form,are distributed as published to libraries and scientific organizationsand to specialists and others interested in the different subjects. Thedates at which these separate papers are published are recorded in thetable of contents of each of the volumes.The series of Bulletins, the first of which was issued in 1875, con-tains separate publications comprising monographs of large zoologi-cal groups and other general systematic treatises (occasionally in sev-eral volumes) , faunal works, reports of expeditions, catalogs of typespecimens, special collections, and other material of similar nature.The majority of the volumes are octavo in size, but a quarto size hasbeen adopted in a few instances in which large plates were regardedas indispensable. In the Bulletin series appear volumes under theheading Contributions from the United States National Herharlum,in octavo form, published by the National Museum since 1902, whichcontain papers relating to the botanical collections of the Museum.The present work forms No. 195 of the Bulletin series.Alexander Wetmore,Secretary^ /Smithsonian Institution.u
CONTENTS
PageIntroduction ixOrder PasseriformesFamily Sittidae: Nuthatches ._Sitta carolinensis cookei: White-breasted nuthatchHabitsDistribution 1]Sitta carolinensis carolinensis: Florida nuthatch 12Habits 12Sitta carolinensis nelsoni: Rocky Mountain nuthatch 14Habits 14Sitta carolinensis aculeata: Slender-billed nuthatch 17Habits 17Sitta carolinensis tenuissima: Inyo nuthatch 19Habits 19Sitta carolinensis alexandrae: San Pedro nuthatch 20Habits . 20Sitta carolinensis lagunae: San Lucas nuthatch 21Habits... 21Sitta carolinensis mexicana: Mexican white-breasted nuthatch 21Sitta canadensis: Red-breasted nuthatch 22Habits 22Distribution 33Sitta pusilla pusilla : Brown-headed nuthatch 35Habits 35Distribution 41Sitta pusilla caniceps : Gray-headed nuthatch 42Habits 42Sitta pygmaea pygmaea : Pygmy nuthatch 44Habits . 44Distribution 46Sitta pygmaea melanotis : Black-eared nuthatch 47Habits 47Sitta p3'gmaea leuconucha: White-naped nuthatch 54Habits 54Sitta pygmaea canescens: Nevada nuthatch 55Family Certhiidae: Creepers 56Certhia familiaris americana: Brown creeper 56Habits 56Distribution 68Certhia familiaris nigrescens: Southern creeper 71Certhia familiaris montana : Rocky Mountain creeper 71Habits 71Certhia familiaris albescens : Mexican creeper 72Habits... 72
rV BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFamily Certhiidae: Creepers?Continued PageCerthia familiaris zelotes : Sierra creeper 73Habits 73Certhia familiaris occidentalis: California creeper 76Habits 76Certhia familiaris leucosticta: Nevada creeper 79Family Chamaeidae: Wren-tits 79Chamaea fasciata phaea: Coast wren-tit 79Habits 79Chamaea fasciata rufula: Ruddy wren-tit 80Habits 80Chamaea fasciata fasciata: Gambel's wren-tit 81Habits 81Distribution 93Chamaea fasciata intermedia : Intermediate wren-tit 94Chamaea fasciata henshawi: Pallid wren-tit 94Habits 94Chamaea fasciata canicauda : San Pedro wren-tit 95Habits 95Family Cinclidae : Dippers 96Cinclus mexicamis unicolor: Dipper 96Habits 96Distribution 112Cinclus mexicanus mexicanus: Mexican dipper 113Family Troglodytidae: Wrens 113Troglodytes aedon aedon: Eastern house wren 113Habits 113Distribution 139Troglodytes aedon parkmanii : Western house wren 141Habits 141Troglodytes aedon baldwini : Ohio house wren 146Troglodytes brunneicollis vorhiesi: Apache wren 146Habits 146Troglodytes troglodytes hiemalis : Eastern winter wren 148Habits 148Distribution 158Troglodytes troglodytes puUus: Southern winter wren 161Troglodytes troglodytes meligerus: Aleutian wren 161Habits 161Troglodytes troglodytes kiskensis: Kiska wren 163Habits 163Troglodytes troglodytes alascensis : Alaska wren 163Habits 163Troglodytes troglodytes tan agensis : Tanaga wren 168Habits 168Troglodytes troglodytes petrophilus : Unalaska wren 169Habits 169Troglodytes troglodytes semidiensis: Semidi wren 169Troglodytes troglodytes helleri: Kodiak wren 170Troglodytes troglodytes stevensoni : Stevenson's winter wren 170Troglodytes troglodytes pacificus : Western winter wren 170Habits 170
CONTENTS ? VFamily Troglodytidae : Wrens?Continued PageThryomanes bewickii bewickii : Bewick's wren 176Habits 176Distribution 180Thryomanes bewickii altus: Appalachian Bewick's wren 183Thryomanes bewickii cryptus: Texas wren 183Habits 183Thryomanes bewickii eremophilus: Baird's wren 186*Habits 186Thryomanes bewickii calophonus: Seattle wren 188Habits 188Thryomanes bewickii atrestus: Warner Valley wren 191Thryomanes bewickii marinensis: Nicasio wren 191Habits 191Thryomanes bewickii spilurus: Vigors's wren 192Habits 192Thryomanes bewickii drymoecus : San Joaquin wren 197Habits 197Thryomanes bewickii correctus: San Diego wren 198Habits 198Thryomanes bewickii nesophilus : Santa Cruz wren 199Habits 199Thryomanes bewickii catalinae: Catalina wren 199Habits 199Thryomanes bewickii leucophrys : San Clements wren 200Habits 200Thryomanes bewickii charienturus : Sooty wren 20
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Habits 201Thryomanes bewickii cerroensis : Cedros Island wren 202Habits 202Thryomanes bewickii brevicauda: Guadalupe wren 202Habits 202Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicianus : Carolina wren 205Habits 205Distribution 215Thryothorus ludovicianus burleighi: Burleigh's Carolina wren 216Habits 216Thryothorus ludovicianus miamensis: Florida,wren 217Habits _' 217Thryothorus ludovicianus lomitensis: Lomita wren 218Habits 218Heleodytes brunneicapillus couesi : Northern cactus wren 219Habits 219Distribution 231Heleodytes brunneicapillus bryanti: Bryant's cactus wren 231Habits 231Heleodytes brunneicapillus aflBnis : San Lucas cactus wren 233Habits 233Heleodytes brunneicapillus purus : San Ignacio cactus wren 234
VI BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFamily Troglodytidae: Wrens?Continued PageTelmatodytes palustris palustris: Long-billed marsh wren 235Habits 235Distribution 238Telmatodytes palustris griseus : Worthington's marsh wren 241Habits 241Telmatodj'tes palustris marianae: Marian's marsh wren 242Habits 242Telmatodytes palustris waynei: Wayne's marsh wren 246Telmatodytes palustris thryophilus: Louisiana marsh wren 246Habits 246Telmatodytes palustris laingi: Alberta marsh wren 247Habits - 247Telmatodytes palustris iliacus : Prairie marsh wren 248Habits 248Telmatodytes palustris plesius: Western marsh wren 259Habits 259Telmatodytes palustris paludicola: Tule wren 26
1
Habits 261Telmatodytes palustris aestuarinus: Suisun marsh wren 264Habits 264Cistothorus platensis stellaris: Short-billed marsh wren 265Habits 265Distribution 274Catherpes mexicanus albifrons: White-throated wren 276Habits 276Distribution 277Catherpes mexicanus conspersus: Canyon wren 278Habits 278Salpinctes obsoletus obsoletus: Common rock wren 284Habits 284Distribution 291Salpinctes obsoletus guadeloupensis: Guadalupe rock wren 293Habits 293Salpinctes obsoletus tenuirostris: San Benito rock wren 295Family Mimidae: Mockingbirds and thrashers 295Mimus polyglottos polyglottos: Eastern mockingbird 295Habits 295Distribution 314Mimus polyglottos leucopterus: Western mockingbird 316Habits 31()Dumetella carolinensis: Catbird 320Habits 320Distribution 348Toxostoma rufum rufum: Brown thrasher 351Habits 351Distribution 372Toxostoma rufum longicauda: Western brown thrasher 374Toxostoma longirostre sennetti: Sennett's thrasher 375H abi ts 375Distribution 377Toxostoma cinereum cinereum: San Lucas thrasher 377Habits 377Distribution 38
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CONTENTS \T[IFamily Mimidae: Mockingbirds and thrashers?Continued PageToxostoma cinereum mearnsi: Mearns's thrasher 382Habits 382Toxostoma bendirei : Bendire's thrasher 383Habits 383Distribution 389Toxostoma curvirostre palmeri: Palmer's thrasher 389Habits 389Toxostoma curvirostre celsum: Plateau thrasher 398Habits 398Distribution 399Toxostoma curvirostre oberholseri: Brownsville thrasher 400Habits 400Toxostoma redivivum redivivum: California thrasher 402Habits 402Distribution 410Toxostoma redivivum sonomae: Sonoma thrasher 411Habits 411Toxostoma lecontei lecon tei : LeConte's thrasher 411Habits 411Distribution 418Toxostoma lecontei arenicola: Desert thrasher 419Habits 419Toxostoma dorsale dorsale: Crissal thrasher 420Habits 420Distribution 425Toxostoma dorsale trinitatis: Trinidad thrasher 426Habits 426Oreoscoptes montanus: Sage thrasher 427Habits 427Distribution 433Literature cited 437Index 461

INTKODUCTIONThis is the sixteenth in a series of bulletins of the United StatesNational Museum on the life histories of North American birds.Previous numbers have been issued as follows
:
107. Life Histories of North American Diving Birds, August 1, 1919.113. Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns, August 27, 1921.121. Life Histories of North American Petrels and Pelicans and Their Allies,October 19, 1922.126. Life Histories of North American Wild Fowl (part). May 25, 1923.180. Life Histories of North American Wild Fowl (part), June 27, 1925.135. Life Histories of North American Marsh Birds, March 11, 1927.142. Life Histories of North American Shore Birds (pt. 1), December 31, 1927.146. Life Histories of North American Shore Birds (pt. 2), March 24, 1929.162. Life Histories of North American Gallinaceous Birds, May 25, 1932.167. Life Histories of North American Birds of Prey (pt. 1), May 3, 1937.170. Life Histories of North American Birds of Prey (pt. 2), August 8, 1938.174. Life Histories of North American Woodpeckers, May 23, 1939.176. Life Histories of North American Cuckoos, Goatsuckers, Hummingbirds,and Their Allies, July 20, 1940.179. Life Histories of North American Flycatchers, Larks, Swallows, and TheirAllies, May 8, 1942.191. Life Histories of North American Jays, Crows, and Titmice. January 27,1947.The same general plan has been followed, as explained in previousbulletins, and the same sources of information have been utilized.The nomenclature of the 1931 Check-list of the American Ornithol-ogists' Union and supplements has been followed.An attempt has been made to give as full a life history as possibleof the best-known subspecies of each species and to avoid duplicationby writing briefly of the others and giving only the characters of thesubspecies, its range, and any -habits peculiar to it. In many casescertain habits, probably common to the species as a whole, have beenrecorded for only one subspecies. Such habits are mentioned underthe subspecies on which the observations were made. The distribu-tion gives the range of the species as a whole, with only rough out-lines of the ranges of the subspecies, which in many cases cannot beaccurately defined.The egg dates are the condensed results of a mass of records takenfrom the data in a large number of the best egg collections in thecountry, as well as from contributed field notes and from a few pub-lished sources. They indicate the dates on which eggs have been
X BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
actually found in various parts of the country, showing the earliestand latest dates and the limits between which half the dates fall, in-dicating the height of the season.The plumages are described in only enough detail to enable thereader to trace the sequence of molts and plumages from birth tomaturity and to recognize the birds in the different stages and at thedifferent seasons.No attempt has been made to describe fully the adult plumages;this has been well done already in the many manuals and State books.Partial or complete albinism is liable to occur in almost any species;for this reason, and because it is practically impossible to locate allsuch cases, it has seemed best not to attempt to treat this subject atall. The names of colors, when in quotation marks, are taken fromKidgway's Color Standards and Nomenclature (1912). In the meas-urements of eggs, the foul' extremes are printed in bold-face type.Many who have contributed material for previous volumes havecontinued to cooperate. Receipt of material from nearly 500 con-tributors has been acknowledged previously. In addition to these,our thanks are due to the following new contributors: Earl Brooks,F. C. Clayton, J. D. Cleghorn, Roland C. Clement, Clarence Cottam,E. M. S. Dale, David E. Davis, Russell S. Davis, Richard J. Eaton,jMary M. Erickson, Albert K. Fisher, Robert Fredericks, John F.Freeman, Herbert Friedmann, Russell K. Grater, Hugh M. Halliday,Samuel A. Harper, Donald M. Hatfield, Harold Heath, Catherine A.Hurlbutt, Ruth B. Inman, H. R. Ivor, L. A. Kosier, Gordon M. Meade,Loye H. Miller, Mrs. D. M. Morrison, H. R. Meyers, A. L. Nelson,Norman A. Preble, W. F. Rapp, Jr., Richard Reade, J. W. Slipp,Bruce P. Stiles, William A. Taylor, W. Bryant Tyrrell, Stephen Wal-dron, J. Dan Webster, James B. Young, and Francis Zirrer. If anycontributor fails to find his or her name in this or some previousbulletin, the author would be glad to be advised. As the demand forthese volumes is much greater than the supply, the names of thosewho have not contributed to the work during the previous ten yearswill be dropped from the author's mailing list.Dr. Winsor M. Tyler rendered valuable assistance by reading andindexing, for these groups, a large part of the literature on NorthAmerican birds, and he contributed three complete life histories. Dr.Alfred O. Gross and Robert S. Woods contributed two each; andDr. Mary M. Erickson and Alexander Sprunt, Jr., contributed oneeach.Egg measurements were furnished especially for this volume by theAmerican Museum of Natural History (Dean Amadon) , Griffing Ban-croft, the California Academy of Sciences (Robert T. Orr), CharlesE. Doe, James R. Gillin, Wilson C. Hanna, Ed. N. Harrison, Turner
INTRODUCTION XIE. McMullen, the Museum of Comparative Zoology (Ruth B. Inman)
,
the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (Margaret W. Wythe), LaurenceStevens, George H. Stuart, 3d, and the United States NationalMuseum.Our thanks are also due to William George F. Harris for figuringhundreds of egg measurements and for sorting over and arranginga mass of egg dates. Through the courtesy of the Fish and WildlifeService, the services of May Thacher Cooke were obtained to compilethe distribution and migration paragraphs. The author claims nocredit and assumes no responsibility for this part of the work.The manuscript for this bulletin was completed in August 1942.Contributions received since then will be acknowledged later. Onlyinformation of great importance could be added. Since this manu-script was first compiled, 18 new forms have been admitted to ourCheck-list by the A. O. U. committee. Their life histories are includedin those of other forms of the species. The reader is reminded againthat this is a cooperative work; if he fails to find in these volumesanything that he knows about the birds, he can blame himself for nothaving sent the information to
?
The Author.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN NUTHATCHES,WRENS, THRASHERS, AND THEIR ALLIESORDER PASSERIFORMES (FA^IILIES SITTIDAE, CERTHIIDAE,CHAMAEIDAE, CINCLIDAE, TROGLODYTIDAE, and MLMIDAE)
By Aethtir Cleveland BextTaunton, Ma^s.
Order PASSERIFORMESFamily SITTIDAE : NuthatchesSITTA CAROUNENSIS COOKEI OberhoberWHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCHPlates 1-4CONTBIBUTED BY WlNSOB MaBEBTT TtUIBHABITSThe white-breasted nuthatch is a droll, earnest little bird, rathersedate and unemotional. He is no great musician and seems to lacka sense of humor. He has none of the irrepressible fidgetiness of thehouse "wren, none of the charming happiness of the song sparrow ; heappears to take life on a matter-of-fact level. He is short-necked,broad-shouldered, sturdy, quick and sure in his motions, suggesting anathlete, and as we study him on his daily roimd. as he hops up anddown over the bark, we see that he is an athlete with marked skill asan acrobat, like the tumbling kind, as much at home upside down asright side up.It is a characteristic pose of the nuthatch, perhaps unique amongbirds, to stand head downward on the trunk of a tree with the neckextended backward, the bill pointing straight outward from the bark.Spring and courtship.?If we have had a male nuthatch under oureye through the winter, either a bird roaming through a bit of wood-land or one visiting our feeding station daily, we notice, as spring ap-proaches, a change in his behavior : he begins to sing freely at all timesof day, whereas previously he sang sparingly and only in the morning1
2 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhours. At this time his deportment toward his mate changes also.All through the winter the pair has lived not far apart, feeding withinhearing of each other, but the male has paid little attention to hismate ; in fact, on the f^od shelf he has shown dominance over her
;
but now in the lengthening, warmer days of spring he becomes activelyengaged over her comfort. A real courtship begins : he carries foodto her and places it in her bill, he stores bits of nut in crevices of barkfor her convenience, and he often addresses his singing directly to her.Standing back to her, he bows slowly downward as he sings, then inthe interval before another song he straightens up, then bows as hesings again. The songs come with perfect regularity over and overagain and can thus be recognized even in the distance as the courtshipsong.We may imagine what a changing color scheme is presented to thefemale bird, if, as his song invites her to do, she glance his way?theblack of his crown and his rough raised mane, then the blue-gray of hisback, then the variegated black and white pattern of his expanded tail,then, perhaps, at the end of his bow, a flash of ruddy brown. At othertimes he approaches the female more aggressively, strutting before herwith stretched-out neck and flattened crown, a pose of intimidation.The change from the passive behavior of the winter months to activecourtship takes place in New England early in April and indicates theadvent of the nesting activities.Nesting.?Speaking of eastern Massachusetts, William Brewster(1906) says: "The favorite breeding haunts of the White-bellied Nut-hatch are ancient woods of oak, chestnut or maple where the trees areof the largest size and more or less gone to decay." In these surround-ings the bird commonly builds its nest high up in a tall tree, eitherin a natural cavity or in an old woodpecker's hole, or, in an orchard,it may make use of a knothole in an apple tree.Edward H. Forbush (1929) states that nuthatches sometimes nestin a cavity excavated by the birds themselves in decayed wood. Suchinstances, however, must be of rare occurrence, for William Brew-ster once told me that he had never known of a case.Mr. Bent (MS.) describes a nest "about 30 feet from the groundnear the top of a large crooked swamp maple that stood near the endof a strip of woods on a private estate. The cavity was a rotted-outcrevice in a nearly horizontal branch. The opening was too narrowfor me to insert my small hand and had to be enlarged. The nestingmaterial consisted of a small handful of soft fur that looked likerabbit fur, but nothing else ; the cavity was very small and not overa foot deep."Thomas D. Burleigh (1931) says of the bird in the mountainousregions of central Pennsylvania
:
WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH 3Tbis species is one of the most characteristic birds of the scattered shortstretches of woods in the open valleys, one pair at least, frequently two, beingfound in each one. Nesting is well under way by the middle of April, and bythe latter part of that month or the first of May these birds are incubating fullsets of from seven to nine eggs, the last being actually the commoner number.The nests are invariably in knot holes in the trunks of the larger trees, varying inheight from 15 to 50 feet from the ground, the cavity itself being 6 to 8 inchesin depth, and usually 6 inches from the entrance. The nests are substantial mat-ted beds of soft shreds of inner bark and rabbits' fur, with rarely a little wool,cow hair, and chicken feathers. But one brood is raised each year.Francis H. Allen says in his notes for April 18. 1942: "My atten-tion was called by low-pitched notes of indeterminate character. Ifound a pair acting in a strange manner about a bird house on theside of a tree. Besides feeding or going through the motions ofpicking food from the bark, they spent much of the time in wipingthe bill from side to side?^that is, the right side and left side of thebill alternately in rapid succession over and over for a considerableperiod of time in each bout. It was like the swinging of a pendulumin its regularity. The male did most of this, but the female also tookpart. A courtship rite was suggested, though it was not accompaniedby any form of display. It was so regular and so long contmuedthat I do not think it could have been merely for the purpose of clean-ing the bill, though it may have started in that way and have beencontinued by imitation and as a sort of play."William Brewster (1936) writes thus of the birds nesting in Con-cord, Mass.
:
There is a round hole about S\^ inches in diameter 60 feet above the ground inour big elm, in which a pair of Flickers reared their brood 6 or 7 years ago. Ithas since been occupied at all seasons by gray squirrels. I have seen three ani-mals enter and leave it within a week. Yet this morning about 8 o'clock a pairof White-bellied Nuthatches were building a nest there. The female did mostof the work and performed it with remarkable rapidity. She would run out ona large branch, pry off a scale of bark 5 or 6 inches long, take it into the holeand almost instantly reappear and go after another. The male occasionally gotone and simply poked it into the hole, without entering himself.Of the several accounts in the literature of nuthatches breeding inbird boxes the following is an example, showing also the bird's methodof obtaining rabbit fur for the lining of its nest. Lucien Harris(1927), of Atlanta, Ga.. writes:I saw a pair of White-breasted Nuthatches carrying strips of bark into thesoap bos. Often they would carry strips larger than themselves. They were veryindustrious and paid no attention to us. The birds used the bark to cover theentire floor of the bos and the layer was about half an inch in thickness. Theythen proceeded to collect little pellets of dried earth and lumps of mud whichwas scattered thinly over the bark.After this preliminary they started on the nest proper, which they placed in aback corner of the box. The nest was saucer-shaped and constructed of smalltwigs, grasses and rootlets.
4 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThen, as if not quite satisfied, this unique pair discovered a dead rabbit?onethat had been dead for soiue time?and proceeded to line the nest proper, as wellas the rest of the box, with rabbit fur, so that when completed the box smelledmore like a buzzard's domicile then a nuthatch's home. Brer' Rabbit's fluffy tailheld a conspicuous place in the middle of the box.The habit of taking hair from dead animals may be the birds' usualprocedure, for Edward H. Forbush (1929) says: "Mr. Maurice Brountells me that he saw one come down from a tree and hop along theground until it reached a dead squirrel from which it plucked a bunchof hair nearly as large as its own head."Helen Granger Wliittle (1926) gives a record of a pair mated for2 years. She says: "In the Bulletin for October, 1925, I reported apair of Nuthatches {Sitta c. carolinensis) which had remained to-gether a winter and a summer, and which had brought a family ofyoung to our Peterboro [New Hampshire] station in July 1925. Theseparents have been under observation for another year. They havenow spent at least two winters and two summers constantly in eachother's compan}^ and they have raised two families which we knowabout. Keeping 'tabs' on these birds has been simplified by the factthat both are banded on the left tarsus. All our other Nuthatches havebeen banded on the right tarsus."Eggs,?[Author's note: All the nuthatches lay large sets of eggs,and the white-breasted nuthatch is perhaps the most consistently pro-lific ; it lays 5 to 9 or even 10 eggs to a set, but the extremes are un-common ; 8 seems to be the commonest number. In a series of 15 setsin the J. P. Norris collection there are 2 sets of 5, 1 of 6, 3 of 7, 7 of 8,and only 1 of 9.The eggs are usually ovate or short-ovate and have very little gloss.The ground color is usually pure white but often creamy white andsometimes pinkish white. They are prettily and usually heavilymarked with bright reddish brown, "ferruginous," "cinnamon-rufous,"
"hazel," or "vinaceous" and sometimes with a few spots of pale laven-der or purplish drab. The markings are often thickest at the largerend ; some eggs are evenly sprinkled over the whole surface with finedots of pale brown.The measurements of 40 eggs in the United States National Museumaverage 18.8 by 14.3 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 19.8 by 15.0, 17.3 by 13.0, and 18.3 by 15.2 millimeters.]Young.?The, young birds when they leave the nest look very muchlike their parents. In Mr. Bent's nest there were "two females andthree males, showing the same sex characters as the adults. They werenearly grown and fully fledged; they could not fly much, but couldclimb perfectly."Dr. Arthur A. Allen (1929) states that the incubation period is12 days and that both parents incubate the eggs and feed the young
WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH 5for 2 weeks after they have left the nest. He says that the youngbirds do not return to the cavity to sleep, but "cling upside down tothe trunk of a tree beneath a projecting branch."In Dr. Wilbur K. Butts's (1931) experience, "the male Nuthatchdoes not assist in incubation. He does feed the female while she ison the nest. * * * Both sexes feed the young."Plumages.?[Author's note: All the nuthatches are peculiarin having a juvenal plumage that closely resembles the adult nuptialplumage and in which the sexes are distinguishable by the same char-acters as in the adult (see pi. 2). In the young male the black of thepileum and hind neck is duller than in the adult and less sharply de-fined against the gray back, and the edges of the greater wing covertsare more or less gray. The young female is similar, except that thepileum (front half of the crown) is deep plumbeous-gray insteadof black ; the hind neck is dull black. Otherwise, young birds of bothsexes are much like their parents.Dr. Dwight (1900) says that the first winter plumage is "acquiredby a partial postjuvenal molt, in July, in Florida, which involves thebody plumage and wing coverts, but not the remiges nor rectrices,young birds and adults becoming practically indistinguishable."Adults have a complete postnuptial molt in July.]Food.?The nuthatch feeds on insects as well as on nuts, acorns, andother vegetable matter. Waldo L. McAtee (1926a) gives thus anexcellent summary of its diet
:
The White-breast has been observed to feed freely on beechnuts, to devouracorns and hickory nuts, to take maize from cribs, and to be very fond of seedsof sunflowers. These observations point to a fondness for mast which is char-acteristic of the nuthatch tribe. During the winter months nearly all of thefood is mast, while through the spring and summer, much animal food is taken,often to the full capacity of the bird's stomach.This is derived chiefly from the ranks of beetles, spiders, caterpillars, truebugs, and ants and other small hymenoptera. Besides these some flies, grass-hoppers, moths, and millipeds are eaten. Among the insect food items known tohave a detrimental relation to the forest are nut weevils, the locust seed weevils{Spermophagus roMniae), round-headed wood borers, leaf beetles, tree hoppers,psyllids, scale insects, caterpillars, and ants. The White-breast has been observedto feed also on larvae of gall flies, eggs of plant lice and of fall cankerworms,oyster scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi), and upon larvae of the gypsy moth and foresttent caterpillars. * * *In the long run, the White-breast, no doubt, destroys a large number of forestpests, and while not so valuable as some of the more highly insectivorous birds,still deserves protection.The birds are fond of suet, as everyone who maintains a feedingstation knows, ^''illiam Brewster (1936) gives this scene of a paircaching this delicacy
:
The pair of Nuthatches came regularly to the suet, oftenest in the early morn-758066?48 2
6 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMing. I watched them closely for half an hour this morning [March 17, 1911].The male was digging out pieces up to the size of a large pea and carrying themaway to store them in crevices in tree trunks and behind scales of loose bark.He took them to different trees and in all directions, usually going about 100yards. Whenever the female was with or near him, he invariably employed herto carry off and cache the morsel. She took it from him without hesitation andflew, as he did, in various directions, chiefly to apple trees in the orchard.Curiously enough, he would not permit her to touch the main store of supplyfrom which he was drawing. Whenever she attempted to do so, he attacked herquite viciously and drove her away. Yet the next moment he would give her thesmall pieces that he had just extracted.Edward H. Forbush (1929) states: "Several ornithologists havedoubted that they ever break nuts of any kind. There is credibletestimony however to support the statement. Dr. C. W, Townsendsays that he has twice observed the habit." Dr. Townsend (1905)continues: "On one occasion, when the bird was disturbed, it flew offwith the acorn into which it had thrust its bill. Their object wasprobably to obtain the larvae within."Those of us who have fed nuthatches at our window ledges and havewatched them feed at arm's length have had ample proof that thebirds do crack and swallow pieces of nuts. I have frequently had abird take a bit of nut meat from my hand and swallow it, or, if itwere too large, take it to the corner of the shelf, as to a cranny ofbark, and split it, and I have watched a bird crack open a cherry stone.Prof. O. A. Stevens (MS.) writes: "When they first appear in thefall, we have often fed them squash seeds, which they cache withgreat industry. I have at times watched an individual bird take sixor seven seeds in succession in different directions, hunting for suitableplaces in trees, shingles, and other parts of houses."Behavior.?The white-breasted nuthatch spends most of his dayhopping over the bark of the trunks and main branches of largetrees, generally moving head downward toward the ground. FrancisH. Allen (1912) points out an advantage in this procedure, saying:
"I suspect that by approaching his prey from above he detects insectsand insect-eggs in the crevices of the bark which would be hiddenfrom another point of view. The Woodpeckers and the Creepers cantake care of the rest."Edward H. Forbush (1929) explains how the downward progressis accomplished. He says : "They seem to have taken lessons of thesquirrel which runs down the tree head first, stretching out his hindfeet backward and so clinging to the bark with his claws as he goesdown; but the nuthatch having only two feet has to reach forwardunder its breast with one and back beside its tail with the other, andthus, standing on a wide base and holding safely to the bark with thethree fore claws of the upper foot turned backward it hitches nimblydown the tree head first." A photograph in Bird-Lore, vol. 31,
WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH 7p. 424, seems to corroborate this statement. However, I once hadunder observation for weeks a nuthatch that had lost his entire leftfoot, the tarsus ending in a stump, thickened at the end, and in spiteof his deformity, he was able to clamber over the branches, both largeand small ones, and even to hang head downward, clinging to a smallbranch with his single foot.Sometimes a nuthatch will hop down to the very base of a tree andthen continue on over the gi-ound. Here the bird looks strangeenough, accustomed as we are to see it in reversed position, as leaningforward it jumps or leaps along, reminding us not a little of a frog.Edward H. Forbush (1929) tells of "a pair that spent an entire fore-noon going over the chips left under a large tree from which the loosebark had been scraped. The birds picked over this material verythoroughly in their search for insects and insects' eggs."The tameness of the white-breasted nuthatch, or the lack of suspi-cion it shows toward human beings, is remarkable. With a little pa-tience a bird may be induced to feed from our hand, especially if weare indoors and reach out through an open window to the food shelfwhere it is accustomed to feed. There are many such records in theliterature. A striking example of trustfulness is related thus byE. M. Mead (1903), who while outdoors in Central Park, New York,fed a bird for two successive seasons: "So fearless is she that shewill take food from my lips, shoulder or lap. Even an open umbrellaover my head has no terrors for her. Although she manifested someannoyance at the appearance of the camera within 2 feet of us formore than an hour, during which time 12 exposures were made, stillshe repeated all her little tricks, not only once, but several times."The bird displays remarkable agility in the air, on the bark of treesand small branches ; it can catch a falling nut in midair, or scrambledownward over the bark and overtake it, and it can hang upside down,swinging from a tiny branch. A. C. Bent (MS.) mentions a bird thatran down a swaying rope, "always head downward, and scolded mewithin 2 feet of my face."Charles L. Whittle (1930) reports a banded bird known to havereached the age of 7i/2 years.Wilbur K. Butts (1927), after making a careful investigation ofthe feeding range of marked white-breasted nuthatches, remarks:
"In the course of the study it soon became apparent that each pairdid not wander freely about, but had a definite, restricted, thoughfairly large feeding range." This accords with the experience I hadwith a male bird v/hich visited my feeding shelf daily, with one shortinterlude, for over a year. Butts (1931) gives the following inter-esting summary of a subsequent study of the bird
:
1. All or nearly all the individuals of the Nuthatch found at Ithaca werepermanent residents. There is no evidence of any migration in this locality.
8 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
2. Each pair of Nuthatches had a definite feeding territory throughout the year.,3. The size of the territory in the winter was about 25 or 30 acres in woodedcountry and apparently about 50 acres in seiniwooded country. 4. They rangedover an approximately equal area during the nesting season, though it was notnecessarily tlie same area. 5. Feeding stations had no effect on the feedingrange of the Nuthatch. 6. Feeding stations should be about one-fourth of a mileapart for the Nuthatch. 7. The nest is built in or near the winter feeding terri-tory. 8. Besides the mated pairs which have established territories there area number of wandering birds. 9. In case of the disappearance of one memberof a mated pair, its place may be talien by one of these wandering birds. 10.Nuthatches may nest in the same hole for successive seasons. 11. The largesize of both winter and breeding territories is apparently not caused by inabilityof the birds to find sutHcient food in a smaller area. They are able to obtainplenty of food quite near the nest. The feeding of the young birds is apparentlynot such a severe task as it is commonly supposed to be.Francis Zirrer, of Hayward, Wis., writes (MS.) : "The familiesstay together until about the end of November, as up to that time theold birds are still occasionally feeding the young, which at first aresomewhat reluctant to come to the feeding table. Later, the old malesusurp the table and chase, or try to chase, all others away. They tamereadily, come to the hand for food, but know perfectly well the dif-ference in size of the food; they will come, pick the first piece, butseeing a larger piece will pause a little, drop the first one and takethe largest. If no food is on the table, they will come to the window,or visit the woodland dweller at his place in the woods, where heworks at his winter supply of fuel, often a considerable distance fromhome; and there is usually no rest until he returns to the cabin andfills the table with a fresh supply of food. They become so used to acertain person and his call that they will, if within hearing distance,come and follow long distances through the woods. Met in the woodsduring the breeding season, often more than a mile away, they willcome at the call and sit on the hand, head, or shoulder. Of course,it is advisable to carry something in the pockets, which one used tosuch things usually does. As a rule, they are quite fearless, evenbold ; during the nesting season of the goshawk, which nested severalyears a few hundred yards from the cabin, the bold little imps in-spected fearlessly the limbs and trunk of the nesting tree, apparentlynot fearing the fierce raptores a few feet or yards away."Voice.?Most of the notes of the white-breasted nuthatch bear a de-cided resemblance to the human voice ; they seem to be spoken or whis-tled. A song, for example, may be likened to a man whistling to adog?a regular series of about six or eight notes, sometimes more,sharply accented, striking the same pitch, each with a slight risinginflection. The pitch is commonly D next but one above middle C.When a bird is singing near at hand the voice loses some of its whistledquality and becomes full, resonant, almost mellow. The song has beenvariously rendered into syllables such as hah-hah-hah, tway, tway,
WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH 9
what, what, too, too, and ivhoot, whoot. These renderings representthe song heard from different distances, and all of them suggest itsomewhat. Occasionally the pitch of the song falls slightly at theend; sometimes the pitch undulates in slight degree; and rarely thebird crowds 20 or more rapid notes into a song of normal length.Some years ago I had a male nuthatch under close observation whereI could hear it practically every day for a full round of the seasons.The following quotation (W. M. Tyler, 1916) gives a summary of hisnotes
:
The Nuthatch sings every month in the year ; even on the coldest days of Jan-uary he occasionally sings a few times in the early morning?I have heard thesong when the temperature was zero;?in February songs are more frequentlyheard, but singing during this month is still irregular. The chief singing periodis from the first of March until the last of May; during these 3 months the malesings continually. June is a month of. comparative silence (I have only five rec-ords of song) ; in July and August songs are heard almost as infrequently as inwinter, and during the last 4 months of the year singing is still rarer. In winter,singing is confined to the early morning hours,?soon after sunrise?and evenduring the spring it is rare, before the first of April, to hear a Nuthatch singin the afternoon. In autumn an occasional song is heard in the warmest partof the day.In addition to his songs, our Nuthatch utters five different notes: (1) Thesimplest of these, and by far the most frequently used note of his vocabulary, isa high, short syllable, quietly pronounced, much aspirated, sounding like "hit."This note is given when the bird is perched and when he is in the air, both by asolitary bird and by the pair when they are together. It is both a soliloquizingand a conversational note and is associated as a rule with a calm mood. (2) Thewell-known ejaculation "quank," a call at certain distances remarkably sug-gestive of the human voice, is often employed when the bird seems excited. Atsuch times the note is delivered with much vigor; on other occasions it is ap-parently used as a call between a pair of birds. This note and the "hit" are theonly notes I have heard from the female bird. The "quank" call is very oftendoubled and is frequently extended into a loud, rattling chatter. As in the caseof the song, the "quank" appears very much rounder, fuller and more resonantwhen heard near at hand. At short range it has a rolling "r" sound. (3) A low-toned "chuck" is sometimes addressed to the female. (4) On several occasionsI have heard the male bird utter a growl (deep in tone for a bird) as he dashedin attack at a Sparrow. (5) A note which I have heard but rarely is a long,high whistle with a rising, followed by a falling inflection. Our word "queer"recalls the note which bears a decided resemblance to one of the Pine Grosbeak'spiping calls. The note has a ventriloquial property, appearing to come from adistance when, in reality, the bird is close by. I heard this note several timesin late February and early March, generally between songs in the early morning.Francis H. Allen says in his notes for May 9, 1939 : "From a pairfeeding in trees I heard a note that was new to me often repeated. It^was a soft, two-syllabled note that might be rendered k dddp. Some-times I saw that it came from the female, and I never was sure thatI heard it from* the male. The note was at least as high-pitched asthe familiar tilt, which the birds also uttered frequently. Twice I say
10 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe male feed the female. The feeding was accompanied by a faintlittle rapid chatter that was new to me. The h ddd'p note was so differ-ent from the ordinary calls of the species that I did not suspect a nut-hatch as the author when I first heard it,"Field marks.?The white-breasted nuthatch is a small, thick-set birdwith a pearl-gray, unstreaked back, shining black crown, and black-and-white wings and tail. The side of the head is white, without anocular stripe, and the bill is long, straight, and dark. It is the largestof our nul hatches and does not resemble the smaller species closely inplumage. Its confirmed habit of hopping downward over the barkof tree trunks distinguishes it readily from the warblers, kinglets, andother small avian frequenters of woodland.Enemies.?The white-breasted nuthatch is one of the species vic-timized by the cowbird, but cases are apparently rare, for Dr. HerbertFriedmann (1934) says: "I knew of three instances before; now an-other one has come to my attention, a set of six eggs of the nuthatchand one of the Eastern Cowbird, collected May 5, 1012, at State Col-lege, Pennsylvania, b}^ R. C. Harlow."R. W. Williams (1918) gives this lively description of an attack oftwo red-headed woodpeckers upon a nuthatch's nest and young
:
Bright and happy days for the birds, old and yonng, ensued, until one morningbefore breakfast (May 9) two Red-headed Woodpeckers arrived on the scene andinspected the box. I did not attach much significance to this and contentedmyself, before leaving for my oflSce, with frightening them away by vigorous ges-ticulations and by small sticks thrown at them. These methods seemed to sufficefor the time. Later in the day, however, I received a message that the Wood-peckers were enlarging the entrance tind possessing the box, throwing out theyoung Nuthatches?three having already bean cast to the ground?and altogetherevicting the parents, which, grief-stricken, were looking on from nearby stations.The red-headed ruffians were at the box when I reached home that afternoonbut they disappeared at my approach. I procured my gun and took a positionfrom which I would be sure to reach them if they returned. I had not long towait. One of them alighted at the entrance of the box. I fired and the birdfell to the ground directly under the box. Both of the Nuthatches flew to thebase of the tree and, clinging there within a foot of the ground, regarded the(Woodpecker for more than a minute, with exhibitions of keen satisfaction andexultation.I found another of the young Nuthatches dead a few feet away from the tree.None of the young birds was mutilated to any extent, from which circum-stance it seems probable that the Woodpeckers were not in quest of food, butdistinctly bent on mischief.Harold S. Peters (1936) mentions two flies. Ornithonica confluentaSay and Ornithomyia anchineuria Speiser, which have been foundin the plumage of this bird.Fall and winter.?As we have seen above, no prominent migrationof the white-breasted nuthatch has been noted. P. A. Taverner andB. H. Swales (1908) report from Point Pelee, Ontario, Canada:
WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH 11
"This species, though met with on nearly all visits, has never been verycommon. Usually a few scattered individuals have made the day'srecord. Our date of greatest abundance was October 14, 1906, when10 were listed. * * * Our fall dates are conflicting, but seem toindicate that migrants arrive irregularly from the last of August tothe middle of September."The nuthatch, as we know him best, is an autumn and winter bird.We meet him hopping about the leafless trees, settled in some wood-land, generally in the company of his mate. Here through the wholewinter he remains in a domain that he has established as his winterquarters, and where he roosts in some sheltered cavity. He often ap-pears to be alone, but if we listen we may hear his mate answeringfrom a distance his little piglike, grunting call. Thus the pair keepsin touch, and when, drifting through the woodland, they meet andfeed in close proximity, they exchange salutations back and forth withtheir soft, conversational hit^ hit. The chickadees and creepers oftenjoin them for a time, all three species, with sometimes a downy wood-pecker, searching for food in the same trees, until the more restlessbirds flit onward and leave the nuthatches alone again.DISTKIBUTIONRange.?Southern Canada to southern Mexico.The white-breasted nuthatch ranges north to British Columbia(150-mile House) ; Alberta (Swift Current Rapids and Beaver Hills) ;Saskatchewan (probably Prince Albert) ; Manitoba (Lake St. Martin,Kalevala, and Wimiipeg) ; Ontario (Sudbury and Ottawa) ; Quebec(Montreal) ; New Brunswick (Grand Falls) ; Prince Edward Island(North River) ; and Nova Scotia (Pictou). From this line the white-breasted nuthatch is found in every State to the Gulf coast and southin Mexico to Veracruz (Las Vigas) ; Puebla (Mount Orizaba)
;
Guerrero (Chilpancingo) ; and Baja California (Victoria Mountains)
.
The white-breasted nuthatch is not truly migratory, but apparentlyit sometimes withdraws in winter from the northernmost part of itsrange and from the higher altitudes. On the Atlantic coast it is foundin some parts of the Coastal Plain more in winter than during thebreeding season.The above outline applies to the species as a whole. At least sevenraces are recognized within our area, and additional ones in IMexico.The southern white-breasted nuthatch {S. c. carolinensis) occupies thesoutheastern zone from North Carolina and Tennessee southward.The eastern white-breasted nuthatch {S. c. coohei) occurs in the north-eastern part from Manitoba eastward and south to Virginia andeastern Kansas and extending to central Texas. The Rocky Mountainnuthatch {S. c. nelsoni) occurs from northern Montana to northern
12 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMexico and from the western edge of the plains west to western Mon-tana and Wyoming, eastern Nevada, and central Arizona. The Inyonuthatch {/S. c tenuissima) occurs from British Columbia to northernBaja California, and from western Montana and Wyoming to theCascades of Oregon and Washington. The slender-billed nuthatch{S. c. aavXeata) occurs from the western side of the Sierra Nevada tothe Pacific coast and from central Washington southward. The Mexi-can white-breasted nuthatch {8. c. mexicana) ranges from the ChisosMountains of southwestern Texas through the highlands of Mexico.The San Pedro nuthatch {S. c. alexandrae) occurs in the pine belt ofthe Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja California. The San Lucasnuthatch {S. c. lagunae) occurs in the Cape district of Baja California.Casual records.?A specimen is recorded to have been taken atChurchill, Manitoba, previous to 1845 ; the species was observed at theForks of the Albany River, Ontario, on September 2, 1920 ; one wasobserved at Kamouraska, Quebec, on May 3, 1934, and one seen inGaspe County, Quebec, on July 9, 1924.Egg dates.?Arizona : 9 records, April 22 to May 28.California : 56 records, March 21 to June 29 ; 28 records, April 6 toMay 17, indicating the height of the season.Colorado : 12 records. May 13 to June 25.Florida : 8 records, March 15 to June 11.New York : 15 records, April 29 to May 30,Oregon : 9 records, April 19 to June 24.Pennsylvania : 11 records, April 21 to May 29.Wisconsin : 5 records, April 29 to May 11.SITTA CAROLINENSIS CAROLINENSIS LathamFLORIDA NUTHATCHPlATES 5, 6HABITSThis southeastern race of the white-breasted nuthatch has a ratherwide range in the Lower Austral Zone of coastal South Carolina,Georgia, and Florida, along the Gulf coast to Louisiana, and up theMississippi Valley to southeastern Missouri, Kentucky, and southernIllinois. *W. E. D. Scott (1890) in describing this subspecies (under the nameatJcinsi) gave as its characters : "Average of wing, as compared withnorthern birds, 0.20 in. smaller in males, 0.15 in. smaller in females.Bill relatively much longer and slenderer. Light markings of tippingof the coverts and quills of the wings decidedly narrower. A littleless white in the tail. In the female birds the Uach of the top of thehead and nape is pronounced^ and it is difficult to distinguish the sexes
FLORIDA NUTHATCH 13
easily, and in some cases impossible, by the color of these parts.* * * The variation in the Florida form is mainly in the directionof the western subspecies aculeata^ but the bill is less attenuated ; thegray of the secondaries is purer, and there are other minor differencesof coloration."He says that this nuthatch was not common around TarponSprings, where his type was collected. I cannot remember havingever seen a white-breasted nuthatch on any of my trips to Floridaand have no reference to it in my notes, though I have traveled overthe State rather extensively. A. H. Howell (1932) refers to it as
"a fairly common resident in northern and middle Florida; casualin southern Florida." Apparently, it occurs in southern Florida onlyin winter. He says that it is "found chiefly in open pine forests, andits nests are said to be placed in pine stubs on tracts that have beencut and burned over." H. H. Bailey (1925) refers to it as a residentthe year round, in northern and central Florida, "breeding sparingly."According to Arthur T. Wayne (1910), the range of this subspeciesshould be extended northward into the coast region of South Carolina,
"for the birds that are resident on the coast are certainly much neareratkinsi than typical caroUnensis of the interior of the State." Breed-ing adult females that he collected "had the whole top of the head,as well as the nape, deep black," the well-marked character of atkinsi.He says of its haunts: "This nuthatch is by no means common anda forest of from one hundred to three hundred acres seldom containsmore than three or four pairs. The birds frequent wooded land,showing a preference for mixed pine woods; but I have also foundthem in the largest swamps, where they are generally in pairs, nevercongregating in small flocks like the Brown-headed Nuthatch."Dr. H. C. Oberholser (1938) refers to it as "an uncommon perma-nent resident," in Louisiana, and says : "It is an inhabitant of wood-lands, orchards, and other cultivated areas, shade trees about houses,and in fact even the parks and streets of the towns and cities."Nesting.?Mr. Bailey (1925) says that, in Florida, "they prefer thenatural cavities of the several species of oaks and other hard-woodtrees in which to place their nest of bark-fiber, fur and hair ; thoughoccasionally they may use the old cavity of the smaller woodpeckers."S. A. Grimes has sent me several photographs of nesting sites of thisnuthatch, taken in Duval County, Fla. (pis. 5, 6). One of these nestswas in a natural cavity, a long, narrow slit, in the trunk of a longleafpine ; others were in dead or living pines, and one was in a cypress.In South Carolina, Wayne (1910) remarks tliat the nest is hard todiscover, as we all know ; he found only three nests. His first nest wasin an abandoned hole of the red-cockaded woodpecker, in a living pinetree 20 feet from the ground, and a set of five eggs was taken from it onMarch 18, 1903. He took another set of five eggs, the second set of this
14 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMsame pair, on April 6; this nest was in an old hole of the downy wood-pecker, 35 feet from the ground in a dead pine. His third nest wasin a natural cavity of a red oak, about 45 feet above the ground, fromwhich he took another set of five eggs on March 31, 1904.Dr. Oberholser (1938) says that, in Louisiana, "occasionally the birdexcavates its own home, and it is also fond of using nesting boxes orbird houses, even close to a dwelling."M. G. Vaiden (MS.) reports a nest that he found near Kosedale,Miss., on April 12, 1926; the nest was in a dead willow, some 8 feetup, in a natural cavity; it was "composed of feathers, some grassand decayed hair and skin of a squirrel."Eggs.?Five seems to be the usual number of eggs found in the nestof the Florida nuthatch. Perhaps more or fewer may occasionallymake up a set. These are practically indistinguishable from the eggsof the northern white-breasted nuthatch, though some that I haveseen are somewhat more heavily marked. The measurements of 40eggs average 18.3 by 14.3 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four ex-tremes measure 19.6 by 15.0, 18.7 by 15.3, 17.1 by 14.5, and 18.1 by 13.4millimeters.I can find nothing peculiar in any of the other habits of this nut-hatch, which probably do not differ materially from those of itsnorthern relative. Maynard (1896), however, states that the "malesutter a singular song which consists of a series of low notes whichpartly resemble those of the Carolina Wren and partly those of theTufted Tit. The birds when giving this odd lay appear very restless,and fly from tree to tree without pausing anywhere." This may be acourtship performance.SITTA CAROLINENSIS NELSONI MearnsROCKY MOUNTAIN NUTHATCHHABITSIn the Rocky Mountain region, from southern Alberta southwardinto northern Mexico, and from the eastern base of the Cascades andthe northern Sierra Nevada eastward across the Rocky Mountains, wefind this large and well-marked race of the white-breasted nuthatches.Dr. Mearns (1902a) describes it as the "largest known form of Sittacarolinensis. Bill large and rather stout, with contour of maxilla con-vex rather than straight above. Coloration dark. Under partswashed with gray and fulvous or fawn color, but less strongly so thanin Sitta carolinensis mexicana Nelson and Palmer. * * * In addi-tion to its larger size, this form may be separated from the easternbird by its darker coloration, the back being more nearly slate colorthan plumbeous, and the color pattern of the tertials as in Sitta caro-linensis aculeata, from which latter its larger size, stouter and differ-
ROCKY MOUNTAIN NUTHATCH 15
ently shaped bill, and the gray and fawn color instead of pure whiteunder parts distinguish it. In nelsoni the white of the tail-feathers ismore extended than in other forms, and, excepting Tnexicana, the fawncolor of the sides and abdomen of the young is more intense than in theremaining subspecies of /Sitta caroUnensis.^^This is the form that we found to be fairly common in the HuachucaMountains, in southern Arizona, up to about 7,000 feet, where we sawit occasionally and found one nest. Mr. Swarth (IQOtlb) says thatit is "resident throughout the mountains, though most abundant inthe higher pine regions. During the cold weather it is quite commonin the oaks along the base of the mountains, but though a few breedthere, the majority of them ascend to a higher altitude in the summer."In New Mexico, according to Mrs. Bailey (1928), it "is found insummer mainly from 7,000 to 8,000 feet. Few species are so strictlyconfined as this to a definite belt of altitude." In fall it wanders some-times below but mainly above its breeding range. In Colorado,Sclater (1912) says that it "is a common resident throughout the year,being found chiefly among the foothills and in the pinon and cedarzone in winter, and at higher elevations, nearly up to timber line, insummer, but it has been found breeding as low as 5,300 feet at Little-ton near Denver." In extreme northeastern California, in the LassenPeak region, Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1930) found the RockyMountain nuthatch resident in the "higher coniferous forests." Theyobserved it in yellow pine, white fir, and lodgepole pine. Aretas A.Saunders (1921) says that, in western Montana, it "breeds in conifer-ous forests in the Transition, Canadian and Hudsonian zones, show-ing preference for yellow pine forests in the Transition, about thefoothills of the mountains, or for white-bark pine in the Hudsonian."Nesting.?Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1930) rfound a nest, onMay 21, 1925, on the west side of Eagle Lake in the Lassen Peaikregion, "in a water-killed pine stub on the lake shore." They reportanother nest "in the stub-forest near Eagle Lake Resort. It was oneand one-half meters up in an old woodpecker nest hole on the southeastside of a stump three meters high." The birds were feeding youngat the time, June 12, carrying in food "at intervals sometimes as shortas one minute. * * * Much of each bird's time was spent in flyinginto the air and catching flying insects."Rev. P. B. Peabody (1906) published some photographs of unu-sually low Wyoming nests of the Rocky Mountain nuthatch ; in onecase, in a low, rotten stump in an open space, "the bottom of the nestwas but a few inches above the ground ; and the cavity but about 9inches in height. The entrance was very irregular; and the cavitystill more so. It appeared to have been made a year previous ; appar-ently by Chickadees. The containing nest was beautifully made ; andthe blackish hair of which it mostly consisted made delicate contrast
16 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
with the pearl-white eggs." He says that, ordinarily, "the materialthat surrounds the eggs is a strange conglomerate; made up, in greaterpart, of disintegrated pellets ejected by birds of prey or voided bycoyotes. It is most interesting to note ; that this material seems to beirregularly added at all times after the first choice of the home. Mate-rial is often brought to the nest as late as mid-incubation time."Frank C. Willard (1912) says that, in Arizona, "nine out of ten nestsare in oaks, the balance usually in pines though a sycamore or madroneis occasionally selected. A natural cavity with a long narrow open-ing is generally elected. The nest is a mass of assorted fur and hairof various animals, skunk and squirrel fur, cow and deer hair pre-dominating. I have also found rabbit fur and bear's hair in theirnests. Enough is used to completely fill the bottom of the cavity andcome up a little on the sides." He mentions a nest in a pine stub ontlie summit of the main ridge of the Huachuca Mountains, altitude8,450 feet, one in an oak near the summit, and a nest in a dead stub of asycamore in the bed of a canyon, altitude 5,200 feet. "One brood, only,is raised m a season. The same nesting site is sometimes used yearafter year, though vermin in the nest frequently cause them to selecta new location the next season." The only nest that we found, whileI was with him, was 18 feet from the ground in a big blackjack oak, atan elevation of about 7,000 feet in the Huachucas ; it was in a naturalcavity in which the base of a limb had not entirely rotted out; thebird had entered through the cracks in the rotted wood and had afresh set of five eggs on May 12, 1922. The nest consisted of a greatmass of rabbit's fur, mixed with pieces of inner bark and bits of straw.E(/gs.?Mr. Willard has found as few as three heavily incubatedeggs and as many as six, but apparently the set most commonly con-sists of five egg* These eggs are practically indistinguishable fromthose of the eastern white-breasted nuthatch. What few eggs I haveseen are more lightly marked, but Mr. Peabody (1906) mentions someheavily marked eggs ; I infer therefore that the eggs probably showall the normal variations common to eggs of the species. The measure-ments of 40 eggs average 18.9 by 14.2 millimeters; the eggs showingthe four extremes measures 21.1 by 14.3, 20.2 by 14.8, 17.3 by 14.2, and18.5 by 13.2 millimeters.Behavior.?In most of its habits and traits the Rocky Mountainnuthatch does not differ greatly from its eastern relative, though itsvoice is thinner and weaker. It does not seem to gather into flocks,as the pygmy nuthatch does, and is almost always seen singly or inpairs, though Swarth (1904b) says that "a single one may occasionallybe seen in a flock of Pygmy Nuthatches or Chicadees." The membersof the pair are much devoted to each other ; the male feeds the femaleon the nest ; and the pair travel about together in winter, keeping intouch with each other with their quaint calls.
SLENDER-BILLED NUTHATCH 17SITTA CAROLINENSIS ACULEATA CassinSLENDER-BILLED NUTHATCHPlates 7, 8HABITSThe first of the western races of the white-breasted nuthatches tobe described is a well-marked subspecies and is found on the Pacificslope west of the mountains, from southern British Columbia tonorthern Baia California. Ridgway (1904) gives the following verygood description of it: "Similar to S. c. carolinensis, but gray ofback, etc., darker (about as in S. c. athM) ; black central areas ofgreater wing-coverts much less distinct; black areas on inner second-aries also much less distinct, as well as more restricted, that on outerweb of second tertial usually with posterior extremity acuminate-pointed instead of rounded; under parts more purely white; billaveraging longer and relatively more slender, and toes shorter; adultfemale with black of hindneck broken by dark gray tips to the feathersand concealed white spots." ... . nnnIts haunts are in the coniferous forests of the mountains from 4 000to 9,400 feet, among the yellow pines on mountain slopes and mthe oaks of the higher foothills. Grinnell, Dixon, and Lmsdale (1930)say of its haunts in the Lassen Peak region: "This race of white-breasted nuthatch had its metropolis entirely within the 'blue vegeta-tional area, in the western end of the section ; that is, the birds collectedand found upon comparison to belong properly to the subspeciesaculeata were all from points west of the western edge of the greenconiferous timber. The trees they most frequented were blue ^ oak,valley oak, digger pine, and, along stream courses, cottoj^^^o^^'W E Griffee tells me that, "in western Oregon, the slender-billednuthatches are commonest in the oak-covered foothills, but nowhere arethey really abundant." .^ . x,^s^m/-There is nothing in the nesting habits of this nuthatchthat is different from those of the other races of the species. In theLassen Peak region, Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1930) found anest in "a cavity 5 meters above the gi'ound in a broken lower hmb ota living blue oak. The tree stood near the bottom of a small ravine.The nest opening was on top of, and at the end of, a limb which ex-tended nearly horizontally from the main trunk for at least 3 metersThe site was found by tracing the course of the male as it carried foodto the female at the nest." Two other nests were found m oaks; onewas "in a natural cavity below a knot hole two meters above the groundon the east side of a large, partly living blue oak" ; the other ; was m acavity below a crack in a large limb of a valley oak, and it was atleast fifteen meters above the ground."
18 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIn the Yosemite section, according to Grinnell and Storer (1924),the slender-billed nuthatch "ordinarily makes use of abandoned wood-pecker holes for nesting sites." They found two such nests ; the first
"was 9 feet above the ground in an old hole of the White-headedWoodpecker in a broken off and barkless Jeffrey pine stump"; thesecond nest was in another old hole of the same species of woodpecker,and was 7 feet from the ground ; the interior of this hole had beenenlarged by the nuthatches to a diameter of over 5 inches, and wasfilled to within 7^/^ inches of the top, with deer and chipmunk hairand feathers from various birds.W. E. Griffee writes to me of a nest that he found near Portland,Oreg.) that was in a natural cavity only 3i/^ feet up in a small ash tree."The bottom of the cavity, which was about 6 inches in diameter, hada heavy layer of grass and moss, and on top of that at least 2 inchesof rodent fur and a few feathers."Incubation.?From the observations of the ornithologists quotedabove, it seems evident that the female alone performs the duties ofincubation and remains on the nest for long periods at a time. Refer-ring to the second nest, mentioned above, Grinnell and Storer (1924)write
:
The female was on tbe nest and as she refused to leave even during the hubbubincident to enlarging the entrance, the observer had to lift her from the nest inorder to examine the eggs. She seemed to be in a sort of lethargy and did notstruggle until actually taken in hand. That the bird had not left the nest forsome time was evident from the quantity of excrement which vpas accumulatedin the cloaca. The condition of this female, the food supply which the male ofthe first nest had been seen to take to his nest, and the further fact that onlymales had been nbted abroad for some days previously, led to the belief that in thisspecies the female alone carries on the duties of incubation and that she remainsupon the nest continuously for a greater or less period of time, during which sheis fed by the male.Fred Evenden writes to me that he saw a male feed its mate in thenest 18 times between 2 : 30 and 3 : 49 p. m. ; the female came out of thehole only once and perched on a stub for a moment.Eggs.?The slender-billed nuthatch has been known to lay 5 to 9eggs, but oftener 6 or 7, though sets of 8 are fairly common. Theeggs probably show all the variations common to the species, but whatfew eggs I have seen have been sparingly marked with small dots.The measurements of 40 eggs average 18.5 by 13.9 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 20.0 by 13.5, 17.3 by 15.0, and16.5 by 12.2 millimeters.Behavior.?White-breasted nuthatches are not, as a rule, gregarious
;
they are almost always seen singly or in pairs. But a remarkable storyof communal roosting at night is told by Dr. G. V. Harvey (1902).One winter evening he saw 29 of these nuthatches come singly to anold dead yellow pine, alight upon a knot, and vanish into a large crack
INYO NUTHATCH 19in the trunk. "At no time during all the lodgment of these 29 birds,did 2 arrive at the same time, nor was there a variation in the time ofthe appearance of any 2 birds of more than 30 seconds." He does notstate the exact time, which was probably only a few minutes beforesunset, for these and other birds have a remarkable sense of time, whichis almost uncanny.This wonderful faculty is well illustrated by an observation, orseries of observations, made by Dr. S. F. Blake (1928), on the regu-larity with which a slender-billed nuthatch went to roost under thetiles of the roof of a band stand at Palo Alto. "His hour of retiring,usually just before the sun disappeared, corresponded in a generalway with the decrease in the length of day." On nine occasions, fromJune 29 to August 26, the time varied from 10 minutes to 25 minutesbefore sunset, and on only four occasions was it more than 20 minutes."On two occasions, two nuthatches were seen together near the band-stand, but only one was ever seen to enter a tile."Voice.?The voices of the western races of the white-breasted nut-hatch seem to differ somewhat from the well-known calls of our easternbird. Ralph Hoffmann (1927) calls the note of this one "a sharp nasalkeer, keer,''^ and says further : "When two birds are working together,they utter a low quit quit. A high quer is the alarm note about thenest. In early spring and summer the male repeats a mellow too tootoo, like the blowing of a little trumpet ; this song is generally givenfrom a twig, an unusual perch at any other time." Grinnell and Storer(1924) describe this spring song as "a mere monotonous repetition ofa certain two syllabled word : cher-wer, cher-wer, cher'-wer, etc."Dawson (1923) says that it has a variety of notes "all distinguishedby a peculiar nasal quality." One he mentions, quonk, quonk, quonk,or ho-onk, ho-onk, might remind us of the call of the eastern bird;but he says that "all the notes of the Slender-billed Nuthatch havea softened and subdued character as compared with those of theeastern bird." SITTA CAROLINENSIS TENUISSIMA GrinnellINYO NUTHATCHHABITSIf the slender-billed nuthatch has a slender bill, this more recentlydescribed form from the Panamint and White Mountains of Californiahas a much slenderer bill ; hence the appropriate name tenuissima.Although originally described from a series of 21 specimens, col-lected in the above-mentioned mountains, in Inyo County, Dr. Grin-nell (1918) suggested that it "is likely to be found to extend northalong the western rim of the Great Basin at least to Fort Klamath,Oreg." This prophecy has been partially fulfilled by A. J. van Rossem
20 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM(1936) who collected 13 specimens of this nuthatch in the Sheep andCharleston Mountains in Nevada and says that it "was found in everytype of coniferous timber above 8,000 feet. Until the middle of Au-gust the birds ranged up to 10,500 feet in the bristle-cone and limber-pine forests, but after the first cold weather the higher altitudes werealmost deserted. On August 19, I saw but one nuthatch above 9,500feet and on the 21st none above 9,200 feet, although on both dates theywere common, chiefly in yellow pines, between 8,000 and 9,000."Dr. Grinnell (1918) gives, as the diagnostic characters of the Inyonuthatch: "Similar to Sitta carolinensis aculeata from west-centralCalifornia, but bill much longer and slenderer, size larger, back ofdarker tone of gray, and flanks paler; similar to 8. c. nelsoni fromsouthern Arizona, but bill much slenderer, and sides, and lower sur-face generally, whiter. * * * In some respects this race is inter-mediate between the Rocky Mountain form and that of the Pacificcoast region, but in the extreme slenderness of bill differs from either."Nothing peculiar is mentioned about its habits.The eggs of the Inyo nuthatch are probably similiar to those ofother races of the species. J. Stuart Rowley has sent me the measure-ments of a set of seven eggs, which average 19.2 by 13.4 millimeters
;
the eggs showing the four extremes measure 19.97 by 13.16, 19.23 by13.68, and 18.71 by 13.38 millimeters.SITTA CAROLINENSIS ALEXANDRAE GriimellSAN PEDRO NUTHATCHHABITSDr. Joseph Grinnell (1926) described this race and named it inhonor of Miss Annie M. Alexander, who sponsored the expedition tothe San Pedro Martir region of Baja California, where this decidedlylocal subspecies was discovered. It seems to be confined to the Transi-tion and Canadian Zones in the San Pedro Martir Plateau, betweenlatitudes 30? and 31?30', and at altitudes of 6,000 to 8,500 feet, a verynarrow range. It is widely separated from the San Lucas nuthatchby "some 600 miles of forbidding country" ; and there seems to be awide gap between it and the slender-billed nuthatch of California.Dr. Grinnell (1926) gives as its characters: "General features ofsize and coloration as in Sitta carolinensis aculeata, but differs fromthis race in much longer wing, tail, and bill, in much broader rectrices,in greater proportion of white on rectrices, in broader white-tippingsto inner primaries, and in slightly darker color-tone of dorsum." Hesays further: "These modifications in the flight equipment of the'nuthatches of the San Pedro Martir plateau, it may be suggested,have been developed as a result of long existence in the very opentype of forest there prevalent; the individual trees are far apart as
SAN LUCAS NUTHATCH 21compared with the forest stands in which White-breasted Nuthatcheslive in Upper California. This necessitates more extensive flightsfrom tree to tree in the usual course of foraging; and numerousstudies have shown that 'sharpness' as well as length of wing andlength of tail vary in direct correlation with extent of flight, whetherin migration or in day-by-day foraging."SITTA CASOLINENSIS LACUNAE BrewsterSAN LUCAS NUTHATCHHABITSThe San Lucas nuthatch was described by William Brewster (1891)as "similar to Sitta carolinensis aculeata, but with the wings andtail shorter, the black on the tips of the outer tail-feathers morerestricted." These characters are slight, but constant. The race wasnot recognized at first by the A. O. U. Committee, but the fact that itlives in a restricted habitat, near the southern tip of Baja California,and the fact that it is separated from its nearest relative, in the SanPedro Martir region, by some 600 miles of unsuitable terrain make itseem worthy of recognition, as an isolated race.Of its distribution and haunts, Mr. Brewster (1902) writes: "TheSt. Lucas Nuthatch is probably confined to the higher mountains southof La Paz, where it was first detected by Mr. Belding in 1883. ToMr. Frazar, however, is due the credit of collecting a sufficient seriesof specimens to bring out the slight but nevertheless very tangibledifferences which distinguish it from aculeata^ to which Mr. Beldingvery naturally referred it. Mr. Frazar met with it only on the Sierrade la Laguna, where, at all seasons, it is a rather common bird in-habiting the pine forests at high elevations."Specimens collected by Frazar, early in May, were incubating;but he evidently found no nests ; and, so far as 1 know, no one else has.SITTA CAROLINENSIS MEXICANA Nelson and PalmerMEXICAN WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCHIn naming and describing this form, Nelson and Palmer (1894)write : "The White-bellied Nuthatches from the mountains of south-central Mexico present certain characteristics by which they may bedistinguished from either of the two recognized forms of the UnitedStates. The Mexican bird has a beak averaging rather smaller thanthat of Sitta caroUneruns from the eastern United States. With thischaracter it combines the color of the dorsal surface and dark markingson tertials of S. aculeata, and differs from both northern forms inhaving only the chin and throat pure white?the rest of the lowerparts in the present form being washed with a distinct ashy shade,heaviest on the flanks and posteriorly."758066?48 3
22 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIts range was not fully known at that time, but it is now knownto include the highlands of Mexico from Oaxaca to Nayarit andsouthern Chihuahua, north to the Chisos Mountains, Tex. Sittacarolmensis oherholseri Brandt is now regarded as a synonym of7)iexicana. SITTA CANADENSIS LinnaeusRED-BREASTED NUTHATCHPlates &-11CONTBIBUTED BY WiNSOE MAEKETT TTLEEHABITSThe red-breasted nuthatch is a happy, jolly little bird, surprisinglyquick and agile in his motions. He has the habit of progressing overthe bark of trees like his larger relative, the whitebreast, but his tempois much more rapid, and he extends his journeys more frequently tothe smaller branches. Here he winds about the little twigs out tothe end, among the pine needles, moving very fast?up, down, andaround?changing his direction quickly and easily, seeming alwaysin a hurry to scramble over the branches. He is more sociable, too,than the larger bird, and when a little company is feeding togetherthey keep up a cheery chatter among themselves. We find them attheir best when gathered in the northern forests at the close of summer.Then they give their high, tin-whistle note, hng^ back and forth on allsorts of pitches, varying its inflection, ringing unheard of changeson this simple call, and when they are together thus, they use also asquealing note?a very high, nasal, little piglike or mouselike squeal
?
and a short explosive kick^ or a rapid series of kicks. The effect ofthese notes, given by a dozen birds as they chase one another about,is very jolly. The little birds seem so happy, animated, and livelyand their voices have such a range of expression that they almosttalk?a playful gathering of talkative, irrepressible, woodland gnomes.Spring and courtship.?Cordelia J. Stanwood, of Ellsworth, Maine,noted (MS.) that a male bird she had watched during winter appearedwith a mate in March. "Five years later," she says, "another red-breasted nuthatch wintered at 'the sign of the suet', and he also selecteda mate in March, and so that it would seem that Sitta canadensischooses his helpmeet early in the season. However, even in years inwhich the birds winter here in goodly numbers, the nuthatches arenot common until April or May. Then in their favorite evergreenwoods their merry pipings fill the land. They tap all over each deadtree to find suitable nesting quarters. Undoubtedly they start nestholes in many trees before they find one that is exactly adapted to theirneeds. One season I followed for many days a pair that nested in abeautiful tract of mixed woodland. I saw them attempt to excavate
RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH 23
a cavity in four or more trees before they found the site that bestsuited them."Ora W. Knight (1908) says : "I have quite good reasons for believingthat they remain mated for more than one season and that mated birdsremain in each others company all the year, rarely associating withothers in flocks, while it is the young birds of the year, as yet unmated,that mingle in flocks with others of their kind as well as related species."Of the bird's courtship apparently little is known. On one occasionI saw a hint of it. A male strutted before a female in a manner similarto the courting pose of the white-breasted nuthatch. The pose wasmaintained but a moment or so and was accompanied with some rapidchippering notes. It consisted of a spreading and lowering of thewings and a spreading of the tail. There was, too, I think, a slightbowing downward and forward of the whole body.Gordon Boit Wellman (1933) records a courtship flight which heobserved on April 6, 1932, in Sudbury, Mass. He says
:
Mrs. Wellman and I were approaching the end of the garden, when a birdflew out of a red cedar and, with incredible speed, zigzagged through the barelimbs of a large old apple tree. After two or three circular turns in this erraticmanner through the branches, it dived back into the cedar. Neither of us,although we stood just in front of the tree, had the slightest idea what the birdwas ; immediately the flight was repeated, leaving us as much mystified as before.No eye could follow the tremendous speed and sharp turns ; it seemed impossiblethat any bird could do it a second time and avoid striking the irregular branches ofthe apple tree. A third flight followed in 2 or 4 seconds and consisted of a shorterperformance : this time the bird stopped suddenly on a small branch of the appletree and we saw that it was a Red-breasted Nuthatch. Almost at once a secondSitta canadensis, a female, joined the first and the two began investigatingholes in the old apple trees of the garden. During the flight there were nonotes from the male; later, when the two birds were together, the usual callnotes were given intermittently.Nesti7ig.?The red-breasted nuthatch usually excavates a cavity forits nest in a rotten stub or branch of a dead tree. Sometimes, however,it makes use of an old woodpecker's hole, and it has been known tobreed in bird boxes.Manly Hardy (1878) speaks thus of nests found in Maine
:
[One] was in a white-birch stub some 10 feet from the gound ; the entrance wasIV^ inches wide by 1^ deep. The hole ran slanting for 3 inches, and then straightdown for 4 inches more. [Another nest] was in a poplar stub some 12 feet fromthe ground. Hole 1% inches by 1 inch, slanting down 4 inches, and then 4 inchesstraight down. * * * Near both the nests were other holes not so deep, prob-ably used for one of the birds to occupy while the other is sitting, as is the casewith most Woodpeckers. Both nests were composed of fine short grasses androots. I notice that in making the hole the bird makes a circle of holes rounda piece about as large as a 10 cent-piece, and then takes out the piece of barkentire. I have one nest which has near it a piece circled in this manner, but notremoved.Walt/er Bradford Barrows (1912) says: "It does not seem to restrict
24 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMitself SO closely as does the White-breast to the natural cavities of trees,but often, perhaps most often, makes use of a deserted woodpecker'shole, in which it builds a nest of soft materials."Charles W. Michael (1934) , pointing out "the difference in habits inthe same species of bird in different sections of its nesting range,"says
:
Here in Yosemite Valley it has been my experience that the Red-breastedNuthatches (Sitta canadensis) never occupy old nests of any sort. Each yearthe birds of a pair working in turn excavate a new nest-hole. Often they dig two,or three, or possibly four prospect holes before finally deciding on the one thatis to be the nest-hole of the season. Most often they choose to work in thedead wood of a living cottonwood. The second choice of tree is the Kellogg oak,but I have also watched a pair of birds drill a nest-hole in the dead stub of a yellowpine. In one case the same pine stub was used two different seasons, but in-stead of using the old nest-hole, which appeared perfectly good, the birds quiteignored it and drilled out a fresh hole.I have seen nests of the Red-breasted Nuthatch as low as 5 feet above theground and as high as 40 feet from the ground. The average height of thenest-hole above the ground is probably close to 15 feet.Henry S. Shaw, Jr. (1916), gives this account of a pair of birdsthat successfully reared a brood of young in a bird box at Dover,Mass.
:
On April 10, I noticed a female Red-breast carrying nesting material into oneof my bird-boxes. This is a Berlepsch box, size No. 2, made by the Audubon BirdHouse Co., of Meriden, N. H. The entrance hole is 1% inches in diameter, andthe box, which is made of yellow birch, is placed in a white birch tree about 7feet from the ground. It was put up in the hope of attracting Chickadees.I did not see the male Nuthatch at work until April 16, when I obsei'ved himcarrying shreds of bark which he pulled from the trunks and limbs of red cedars(Jutiipcrus virginiana) growing nearby. Examination of the box after thenesting season showed that the nest was composed exclusively of this material,the box being filled to within an inch or two of the level of the entrance-hole.The male usually left his load at the hole, without entering, and I suppose thatthe material was put in place by the female inside.William L. G. Edson and R. E. Horsey (1920) report a similar nest-ing in Monroe County, N. Y., in a bird box "placed on an Electric-wirepole in the midst of thick hemlocks."It is an apparently invariable habit of the red-breasted nuthatchto smear with pitch the entrance of its nesting cavity. All thedescriptions of nests mention this peculiarity, whether the nests arein hard wood, pines, or bird boxes. In the northern woods the birdsuse the pitch of the balsam fir and spruce ; farther south they use thepitch of pine trees. The pitch as a rule is generously laid on, oftenall around the hole. In Mr. Shaw's nest noted above the pitch wasadded progressively during the nesting season, and Thomas D. Bur-leigh (1921) says, writing of the bird in Montana : "The birds continueto carry pitch to the entrance of the nest from the time the nest isfirst begun until the young have flown. * * * On June 16 I found
RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH 25
a nest containing almost fully grown young that was but 2 feet fromthe ground in an old rotten stub and during the 15 minutes that Iwatched the birds they made seven trips to the nest, carrying eachtime not food but pitch which they carefully smeared on any woodthat was exposed within several inches of the entrance."William Brewster (1938), writing of a nest found near LakeUmbagog, Maine, says: "This nest was finished today but containedno eggs and had but little pitch. Both birds, however, were there,and both were hringing 'pitch and plastered it on the bark below thehole. I watched them a long time. They brought it on the tips oftheir bills in little globules, alighted against the lower edge of the hole,and then tapped it on in various places as low as they could reach,but without shifting their foothold." Of another nest in the sameregion he says : "Nest in red maple stub over water ; tree very rotten
;
height about twenty feet ; hole on west side about two feet from top. Aquantity of pitch, which my guide pronounced unmistakably spruce^about the entrance and inside its tunnel. Stub standing in five feet ofwater twenty yards from the shore."W. Leon Dawson (1923) writes : "Canadian Nuthatches nest at a,nyheight, and their lack of consideration in this respect accounts formuch of our relative ignorance. I located a nest, in Seattle, in anearly limbless live fir tree, at a height of 120 feet. Obligations to agrowing family forbade attention to details. On the other hand, anest taken near Tacoma on the 8th of June, 1906, was found at aheight of only 7 feet, in a small fir stump. * * * The wood of thelast-named nesting stub was very rotten, and the eggs rested only4 inches below the entrance. The nest-lining, in this instance, was aheavy mat an inch in thickness, and was composed of vegetablematter?wood fiber, soft grasses, etc.,?without hair of any sort."Eggs.? [Author's note: The red-breasted nuthatch lays ordinarily4 to 7 eggs ; probably 5 or 6 eggs make up the usual set. The eggs varyfrom ovate to rounded-ovate, and have very little or no gloss. Theground color is pure white, or more rarely pinkish white or creamywhite. They are sometimes heavily and sometimes sparingly spotted,or finely dotted, with bright reddish brown, such as "ferruginous,"
"hazel," "cinnamon-rufous," or "vinaceous," and some darker shadesof brown. As a rule they are very pretty eggs. The measurementsof 50 eggs in the United States National Museum average 15.2 by11.9 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 17.0 by12.5, 15.2 by 12.7, 14.2 by 11.2, and 15.2 by 11.1 millimeters.]Towng.?As with most young birds that spend their nest life hiddenaway in cavities, we know little of the development of nestling nut-hatches. After their emergence, however, we note a rapid increasein strength and activity. Some years ago I watched four young birdsthat had left the nest 5 days before. They were in a white pine a
26 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhundred yards from the nest, and they moved about easily, sometimeshanging back-downward from the branches. They did not ventureout to the ends of the twigs among the needles (as the parents didfor food) but remained not far from the trunk. Although the youngbirds picked at the bark of the branches, I could not be sure that theygathered any food for themselves.We get a hint of the rapidity of the development of very youngnuthatches from the account of Florence K. Daley (1926) , who rearedin a cage some young birds from the time when they were "not morethan a few days old" until they could care for themselves. She fedthem on bread and milk, water, and "Song Restorer" and after 2weeks was able to liberate them safely.In the opinion of Cordelia J. Stanwood (MS.), who has studiedthe nesting of the bird extensively at Ellsworth, Maine, the youngred-breasted nuthatches leave the nest 18 to 21 days after hatching.F. L. Burns ( 1921) gives the period of nestling life as 14 days or more,and the incubation period (1915) as 12 days.Plumages.? [Author's note: The natal down of the young red-breasted nuthatch is dark gray. In the juvenal plumage the sexesare distinguishable, the young males resembling the adult males andthe young females resembling the adult females, but all the colorsare duller. There are faint black edgings on the back, the blackportions of the head are much duller, the white superciliary stripe,chin, and sides of the head are speckled with black, and the under-parts are pinkish buff, deepening to pale cinnamon on the crissum.A partial postjuvenal molt begins late in July, involving the con-tour plumage but not the wings and tail. This produces a first winterplumage which is practically adult, the back being a darker, bluishgray, the pileum (in the male) glossy black, the w^hite portions of thehead w^ithout black speckling, and the underparts more richly anddeeply colored.Adults have a complete postnuptial molt, mainly in July. There isno spring molt, but considerable wear and fading make the springplumage almost as pale as that of the juvenal,]Foof/.?Waldo L. McAtee (1926a), summarizing our knowledge ofthe food of the red-breasted nuthatch, says : "Unfortunately we knowvery little about the food of this species. It is very fond of the seedsof pines, spruces, and the like, which it takes in lieu of the largermast favored by the Wliite-breast. The animal food is known toinclude beetles, hymenoptera, and spiders, and among forest pestsit has been observed to feed on the ribbed pine borer {Rhagimn line-atvm) . No doubt the Red-breast does its modicum of good to com-pensate for the tree seeds which it draws from a store which usuallyis superabundant."Ora Willis Knight (1908) speaks of the diet thus:
RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH 27Their food consists of about the same run of insects' eggs, insects and larvae asis eaten by the White-breasted species. They greatly relish the seeds of tir, spruce,and pine and in winter can generally be found feeding in a region where trees ofthese species have seeded abundantly the past season. They deftly pry open thescales of the cones, insert their bills and obtain the seed. Maple seed are some-times eaten by them. They will also eat bits of rotten apple, suck sap fromthe bleeding stumps of trees, take their share of bits of suet or meat exposedand on a pinch eat seed of dock and other weeds which protrude above thesnow.C. K. Averill, Jr. (1888), emphasizes their fondness for the seedsof the black spruce, writing : "In the Northern Adirondacks I noticedthat the Red-bellied Nuthatches seemed to be feeding exclusively onthe seeds of the black spruce. After that I watched them for anumber of days, and although they were abundant, I did not see themfeeding on anything else. Alighting on a bunch of cones at theextremity of a bough, the Nuthatch would insert its bill between thescales of a cone and draw out a seed. Then flying to a horizontalbough nearby it would detach the wing which adheres to each seed,letting it fall to the ground, swallow the seed, and fly back for another."Richard F. Miller (1914) describes the bird feeding in beds ofgiant ragweed during the fall migration in northeastern Philadel-phia, Pa. He says: "A remarkable feature, to me, about the oc-currence of this little Sitta here during that fall, was their habitof frequenting water courses fringed with dense growths of giantragweeds (Ambrosia trifida) , in which they sought food on the thickstems, petioles and leaves, often feeding close to the ground. I al-ways regarded this nuthatch as a denizen of the forest and its oc-currence in these weedy growths surprised me. They exhibited nofear as I entered the weeds, and if I kept quiet, they fed fearlesslywithin close proximity of me, often only a yard away."Edward H. Forbush (1929) states that they "fly off into the airafter flying insects or search about in the long grass for them" andP. M. Silloway (1907) speaks thus of this habit: "The red-breastednuthatch {Sitta canadensis) at times acts like a real flycatcher. Justnow one alighted on a tree-trunk near me, and while investigatingthe bark crevices, twice he flew out from the trunk, captured a fly-ing insect dexterously in the air, and returned to his gleaning onthe bole."Cordelia J. Stanwood (MS.) watched from a blind a pair feedingtheir young in the nest. She says : "They came and went constantly
;
sometimes caterpillars dangled from their beaks, at other times theirbills bristled with crane-flies or moths. Once a bird carried in alarge white grub, at another time the larvae of a spruce bud moth,and still again spruce bud moths themselves."William Brewster (1938), speaking of a nest in northern Maine,says: "Quite regularly at intervals varying from 10 to 15 minutes
28 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe male came to it with a bill full of insects?large, gauzy-wingedDiptera they looked like."O. A. Stevens, of Fargo, N. Dak. (MS.), writes to Mr. Bent of hisexperiments in feeding a female nuthatch. He says: "To facilitateobservations, I feed finely chopped nuts in a block on top of the windowshelf. Three holes in the block allow comparisons of different foods.Black walnuts are by all means preferred, but peanuts are quite accept-able and constitute the usual fare. English walnuts and pecans rankhigh, the harder almonds and hazelnuts below peanuts. Curiously,the soft, oily Brazil nut, which would seem suitable, rates low. It isinteresting that the birds adopt so readily foods that they could nothave known before.
"In feeding, nuthatches are untidy, spearing into the supply andscattering the crumbs about. A striking feature of their feeding isthat they never use their feet as chickadees do continually, but alwayswedge a large piece into some crack while they pick it to pieces. Inone full day's observation when sunflower seed, walnuts, and peanutswere available, I did not see this nuthatch take any sunflower seedsalthough the chickadees were taking them freely."Francis H. Allen (MS.) says: "On August 22, 1929, a warm, stillday when flying insects were probably plentiful, I found many red-breasted nuthatches perched on the tops of spruce trees on GrandManan and flying out and catching insects after the manner of fly-catchers." He saw one in "West Roxbury, Mass., catching flies inOctober, once from an apple tree and then from the top of a larch.He also saw one flying frequently to the ground under a hemlock andback into the tree or a shrub, "where he evidently ate or disposed ofwhat he had picked up. He was probably getting hemlock seeds, thetree being full of cones. He seemed to be making a business of gettinghis food in this way."Behavior.?Besides scrambling over the trunks and branches oftrees in the true nuthatch fashion, this little bird, as we have seen,makes excursions out into the air to capture flying insects, and notinfrequently visits the ground where it hops about or bathes in a littlepool of rain-water or melted snow. Theed Pearce, in a note to Mr.Bent, mentions "a habit, when perched on a small branch, of flirtingor wagging its tail and back part of its body from side to side. Thiswas seen on March 23, and so suggests a form of display."Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1913) describes thus the behavior offive birds which alighted on a steamship:Five of this species, one adult, the others ininiatnre, came on board the steamerin a fog and remained on board two days. They were extremely tame and creptabout the deck, and on the ropes and spars, sometimes within a few inches ofthe passengers. One alighted on the coat-collar of a sailor as he was lightinghis pipe, and another on my shoulder as I stood on the bridge. I put my hand
RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH 29
near the adult Nuthatch on the rail and he picked at my finger ; then he flewinto the captain's cabin and gathered insects from the window. There weremany small dead moths on board that seemed to be particularly relished. Inoticed two Nuthatches on the chains of the smoke stack undisturbed by theconstant vibrations, and, what is still more surprising, by the deafening steamfog-horn that was blown at frequent intervals within a few feet of them.The habit of flying straight into the nest hole is mentioned by twoobservers: Charles W. Michael (1934) says: "When feeding smallyomig the parent nuthatch dives on the wing directly into the nest-hole," and William Brewster (1938) remarks: "She usually flew in,without so much as touching her feet to the edge of the hole."William Brewster (1886) speaks thus of the bird in the Black Moun-tains of North Carolina in summer: "In the balsams of the BlackMountains, from about 5,000 feet to the top of the main ridge (G,000feet), this Nuthatch was more abundant than I have ever seen itelsewhere. Whenever I stopped to listen or look around its whining,nasal call was sure to be one of the first sounds that came to my ears,and often three or four different birds would be heard at once. Theywere usually invisible?high in the tops of the matted evergreens,but I occasionally caught sight of one hanging head downward at theend of a branch, or winding up the main stem of the tree." Walter B.Barrows (1912) calls attention to the bird's habit of storing seeds
"in the punctures made by the Sapsucker in various species of trees."Francis H. Allen watched 14 of these nuthatches moving in andout of the conifers near his house, in September, of which he (MS.)says : "At first I saw one perched on the tiptop of each of two neigh-boring Norway spruces. They kept up a constant piping and flickedtheir wings continually?that is, partly spread them. Later othersappeared and all performed likewise. When they flew from tree totree, it was with an irregular flight. This was probably a species ofmock courtship."Francis Zirrer (MS.) writes to us : "At the feeding table tliey fightand angrily chase one another away. They are great hoarders, whichtrait occasionally leads to amusing incidents. The woodpeckers,especially the hairy, watch the hoarding with interest, and, as soonas the nuthatch leaves to get another piece, fly to the place and appro-priate the morsel. This lasts sometimes for quite a while until thelittle bird gets wise and flies away scolding."Voice.?Of the two commonest notes of the red-breasted nuthatchone is a short, faint little note, heard only when the bird is near. Itis suggested by the word hit, pronounced emphatically in a whisperedvoice, and is used, apparently, as a conversational note, exchangedbetween a pair of birds or among the members of a flock. To my earit is indistinguishable from the corresponding note of the whitebreast.The other commonly heard note is a far-carrying, nasal cry with the
30 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMquality of a blast on a tiny tin trumpet. This note varies greatly inlength, sometimes being drawn out into a long whine; it may berepeated in a very rapid series, or delivered in a slow, regular, delib-erate measure. Often written yna, although kng suggests the nasalquality better, it corresponds evidently to the sharply pronounced kankof the whitebreast. The other notes of the bird, and there are manyof them (see below), may be regarded, perhaps, as variants, utteredunder different stresses of emotion, from these two main themes.The question as to w hat is the song of the red-breasted nuthatch hasbeen ably considered and convincingly answered by Francis H. Allen(1932). He says:As the true song of the Red-breasted Nuthatch {Sitta canadensis) seems notto be generally known and never to have been fully described in the boolis, itseems worth while to put on record in "The Auk" as adequate a description asI can give of the song as I have heard it this spring of 1932. I have heard thesong many times between March 27 and May 14 of this year from a bird near myhouse in West Roxbury, as well as on two occasions from two other birds in otherplaces in eastern Massachusetts. The song when I firet heard it (March 27)was so strongly suggestive of that of the White-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta caro-Imensis carolinensis) , yet so different in tone, that though I could not at the timefollow up the bird to identify it, I had little doubt that it was a Red-bi-eastedNuthatch. On April 6 I heard the song again and was then able to connect itdefinitely with Sitta canadensis, for I saw the bird in the act of singing. Afterthat and up to the time when the bird left us, presumably for his breeding-hauntsfarther north, I heard the song frequently, and I never had any difiiculty indistinguishing it from that of its white-breasted cousin, which I also heardnearby not infrequently. The song resembles the familiar tva-ica-wa-wa, etc., orwhat-ichat-what-what, etc., of the other species, but it is more rapid and higher-pitched and possesses a reedy quality unlike the smooth, liquid tone of theother.And he adds : "To my ears the note repeated is not at all the familiar
'nasal hank^ of the call-note but a much softer note that is not particu-larly nasal."Aretas A. Saunders (MS.) speaks of the song thus : "Only once haveI heard anything from this bird that one could call a song. At Flat-head Lake, Mont., July 1914, a bird called, day after day, a long yaaaaayaaaaa yaaaaa^ just like its usual voice in quality, but much prolonged,usually three yaas in succession, and then a short pause. The soundwas so persistent that it became monotonous and almost irritating. Ifound the bird sitting on a twig beside a stub with a hole in it (appar-ently its nest) , with its head up in the attitude of song as it called."Harrison F. Lewis (MS.) sends to Mr. Bent the following compre-hensive list of the notes he has heard the bird utter : " ( 1) The common,well-known yna yna, yna, yna. (2) Zeee, zeee, zeee; zeee, zeee, zeee,like the notes of a katydid. This is used by the male when scold-ing an intruder near the nest, and when chasing a rival. (3) Biddy-hiddy-hiddy-Uddy, etc., the notes being run off quite fast in long
RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH 31
series, with brief pauses between the series. This is also a scoldingnote of the male. (4) A long trill, like the song of a toad. This wasuttered by the male when chasing his mate. (5) A loud, prolongedtwitter. This was uttered by the male while near his mate. (6) A fineit^ if, if, if, etc. I have recorded this for the female only. (7) An in-quiring little ehf ehf eh? This was uttered by both sexes when I wasoffering them suet, and they were near me, but were not quite surewhether or not they should trust me. (8) A peep, peep, peep, etc.,]ike the note of a young biM begging for food. This was uttered bythe female, when she, with fluttering wings, sat on a limb near wherethe male was eating suet, but I could not see that either bird paid anyparticular attention to the other at this time. (9) A true song, whichI have heard but once, viz, about 6 o'clock on the morning of March26, 1920, near Quebec, P. Q. It consisted of the ordinary loud yna,yna, given very fast in short series, or runs, almost trills. It was muchlike the early morning singing of the chipping sparrow, the notesbeing uttered about as rapidly in each brief series, and the individualseries being of about the same length, but the intervals between theseries were a little longer in the case of the nuthatch. Singing con-tinued for 2 or 3 minutes, while another red-breasted nuthatch twit-tered excitedly in a nearby tree."Bradford Torrey (1904) , in this pretty passage, lets us hear, throughhis ears, the sound of the nuthatches' voice in a New Hampshire for-est : "There is seldom a minute when, if I pause to listen, I cannot hearfrom one direction or another the quaint, homely, twangy, countryfied,yet to me alwaj^s agreeable voice of Canadian nuthatches. At fre-quent intervals one or two come near enough so that I see them creep-ing about over the trees, bodies bent, heads down, always in search ofa mouthful, yet keeping up, every one, his share of the universalchorus." And later: "On all sides the little nuthatches were callingto each other in their quaint childish treble."Field marks.?The red-breasted nuthatch is a trim, stylish-lookinglittle bird ; the dark line through the eye adds a distinction to its ap-pearance that the whitebreast lacks ; the blue-gray, black, and tawnycoloring makes a pleasing artistic combination, and the diminutivetail supplies a piquant effect.Enemies.?^Although this nuthatch is exposed to the vicissitudesthat beset most small birds, it is an abundant and widely spread spe-cies. Doubtless its quickness and agility as well as the protectionthat thick evergreen growth affords render it comparatively safe.Joe T. Marshall, Jr. (1942) , lists a red-breasted nuthatch as havingbeen found in a pellet of the spotted owl.Fall and winfer.?As autumn draws near, those of us who live nearthe Atlantic seaboard to the south of the Canadian forests are on thealert to detect the earliest sign that the red-breasted nuthatches have
32 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMleft their northern homes and are on their way to visit us. For inany year they may move southward in fall, or they may elect to re-main in the north through the winter, their movements depending,apparently, on the state of the cone crop. We begin to look and listenfor them early in August and, if it is to be a nuthatch year, we havenot long to wait before we hear the little trumpet call and see thetiny birds romping and rollicking through the woodlands.They are very common near the seacoast, especially during the earlydays of the flight. I remember that Dr. Charles W. Townsend and Ifound many of them in 1923 gathered in the little patches of pitchpines scattered among the Ipswich sandhills, and William Brewster(1906) speaks of them on their first arrival as occurring "on barrenpoints or islands along the seacoast, where they may be started inbeds of beach grass or watched climbing over the surfaces of lichen-covered boulders and cliffs."William Dutcher (1906) gives an account of an extensive flight inNew York State thus
:
During a vacation spent on Fire Island Beach, New York, in September, aremarkable migration of tliese birds was observed. Point o' Woods is a cottagesettlement, on the barrier beach, at this point about 1,000 feet wide, between theocean and Groat South Bay, which is here eight miles wide. The soil is sand-covered with a rank growth of weeds of various kinds, low bushes, scrub-oaksand small pines. On the night of September 20, it was very damp, with a mod-erate southwest wind and a number of showers. On the morning of the 21stthe wind still continued southwest, very moderate, with a temperature of 74?at 7 a. m. During the night there must have been a great flight of Red-breastedNuthatches, for they were seen on the morning of the 21st in large numbers.They remained all that day, although there seemed to be a steady movementto the west, which here is the autumn direction of migration. During the nightof the 21st, we had more showers, and on the 22d, the wind was strong south-east, with some rain. There was a large migration of small birds during thenight, as the bushes were full of Towhees, Cuckoos and Kingbirds, and the Red-breasted Nuthatches were more numerous than the day before. They out-numbered the sum total of all the otlier small migrants. On the 23d, largenumbers of them still were in evidence, but not so many as on the 22d, andon the 24th only a few were seen.The flight covered three days?21st to 23d?while on the 24th the stragglersbrought up the rear, a lone laggard being seen on the 2oth. At the height of themigration, Nuthatches were seen everywhere,?on the buildings, on trees, bushes,and weeds and even on the ground. They were remarkably tame and would per-mit a near approach ; if the observer were seated they would come within afew feet of him. They crept over the roofs and sides of the houses, examiningthe crevices between the shingles ; they searched under the cornices on the piaz-zas and in fact looked into every nook and corner that might be the hiding-place of insects.Every tree had its Nuthatch occupant, while many of them evidently foundfood even on the bushes and larger weeds. On a large abandoned fish factoryat least 50 of these birds were seen at one time. The proprietor of one of thehotels told me that five of the birds were in his building catching flies, theyhaving come in through the open doors and windows.
RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH 33L. B. Potter (MS.) thus writes to Mr. Bent of a conspicuous flightin western Canada : "In the fall of 1919 in this district [of Eastend,extreme southwestern Saskatchewan] I witnessed a most remarkableinvasion of red-breasted nuthatches. The little birds could be seenanywhere and everywhere, outside and inside farm buildings, amongthe sage brush in open country, as well as in the woods."Swales and Taverner (1907) report the bird very common in thefall of 1906. They say : "September 1 to 3 they were common at PointPelee, and still more so from the 15th to the 22d, and October 15 vastnumbers were seen there. They were eveiywhere, in the hard woods^hanging head downwards from the tips of the long branches, in theorchards, creeping over the trunks, and in the red cedar thickets ; butby far the largest numbers were towards the end of the Point on theedge of a waste clearing where every dead and dry mullen stalk hadseveral of their little blue forms upon it. There seemed to be hundredsin sight at one time."Winton Weydemeyer (1933) speaks of the winter range of the birdin Montana thus
:
My observations on the range of the Red-breasted Nuthatch in winter havebeen limited to Lincoln County ; but over the rest of the adjoining area describedabove its habits are probably similar. In winters when the birds occur ascommonly as in summer, they may be found locally in all the forest types whichthey frequent during the breeding, season, showing the same preference for fir-larch woods in the Ti'ansition zone and heavily-forested high valleys and basinsin the Canadian zone. During winters when most of the nuthatches have mi-grated from the region, a few remain throughout the season in the Hudsonian andupper Canadian zones, even when they are entirely absent from the Transitionand Canadian zone forests of the lower valleys and foothills.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Central Canada to southern United States. The rangeappears to be divided into two discontinuous regions, as from Sas-katchewan to Texas it occurs only as a migrant or stray. It is a birdof the coniferous forests, and it is possible that this gap between thetwo ranges may be bridged in the northern forest from which norecords are at present available, since it occurs as an uncommon mi-grant through southern Saskatchewan.Breeding range.?In the west the species ranges north to southernAlaska (Chitina Moraine and Skagway, probably breeding) ; Yukon(junction of the Pelly and Lewes Rivers, and Squanya Lake) ; south-ern Mackenzie (Fort Simpson). East to southern Mackenzie (FortSimpson), Alberta (McMurray and Camrose) ; and south throughthe mountains to eastern Wyoming (Laramie) ; Colorado (Brecken-ridge and Fort Garland) ; and southeastern Arizona (Wliite Moun-tains, Mount Graham, and the Santa Catalina Mountains). South tosoutheastern Arizona (Stata Catalina Mountains) ; and California
34 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM(Bear Lake and Point Pinos) ; West to California (Bear Lake andPoint Pinos) and northward through the Sierra-Nevada and Cascadesof Oregon and Washington to British Columbia (Kispiox and Atlin) ;and Alaska (Cliitina Moraine).The eastern range is north to Manitoba (Echimamish Kiver andKnee Lake) ; central Ontario (Moose Factory) ; Quebec (Godbout andthe Mingan Islands) ; and Newfoundland (Cape St. George and pos-sibly St. Anthony). East to Newfoundland (possibly St. Anthony)
;
Massachusetts (Gloucester and Canton) ; New York (Orient, Adiron-dack and Catskill Mountains) ; and south through the mountains toNorth Carolina (Roan Mountain and Mount Mitchell). South toNorth Carolina (Mount Mitchell), and Tennessee (Cosby Knob);northeastern Ohio (Mentor) ; northern Michigan (Wequetonsing andDouglas Lake); and Wisconsin (Pine Lake). West to Wisconsin(Pine Lake and Perkinstown) ; Minnesota (Duluth and Clear Lake) ;and IManitoba (Elk Island, Lake Winnipeg, and Echimamish River).Winter range.?The species sometimes occurs in winter almost asfar north as it breeds. It winters fairly regularly north to southernBritish Columbia (Vancouver Island and Okanagan Lake) ; Sas-katchewan (one in December at Cumberland Lake) ; Manitoba (LakeSt. Martin and Winnipeg) ; Quebec (Montreal and Godbout) ; andNova Scotia (Antigonish). East to Nova Scotia (Antigonish) andthe Atlantic coast States to North Carolina (Raleigh). South toNorth Carolina (Raleigh) ; Tennessee (Chattanooga and Memphis) ;casually northern Florida (Fernandina and Pensacola) ; rarelyLouisiana (Monroe and Bienville) ; Texas (San Antonio, Knicker-bocker and El Paso) ; New Mexico (Carlsbad) ; and southern Cali-fornia (Redlands and Santa Barbara). West to California (SantaBarbara and Redlands) and the Pacific coast to British Columbia(Vancouver Island).Spring migration.?Lute dates of spring departure from the win-ter home are: Georgia?Dalton, April 28. Mississippi?Bay St.Louis, April 1. Texas?San Antonio, March 25. North Carolina-Raleigh, April 25. Virginia?Lynchburg, April 30. District of Co-lumbia?Washington, May 20. Tennessee?Nashville, May 14. Ken-tucky?Bowling Green, May 4. Ohio?Oberlin, May 29. Indiana?Notre Dame, May 23. Illinois?Chicago, May 15. Missouri?St.Louis, May 18. Iowa?Keokuk, May 13. Kansas?Topeka, May 3.Nebraska?Omaha, May 8.Early dates of spring arrival are : Massachusetts?Amherst, March28. Vermont?Burlington, March 27. Maine?Ellsworth, March15. New Brunswick?Scotch Lake, April 1. Quebec?Cap Tour-mente, April 28. Ohio?Cleveland, March 1. Ontario?London,March 14. Indiana?Indianapolis, March 7. Michigan?GrandRapids, March 13. Iowa?Iowa City, March 12. Wisconsin?Madi-
BROWN-HEADED NUTHATCH 35
son, March 26. Minnesota?Minneapolis, March 26. South Dakota
?
Yankton, April 14. North Dakota?Fargo, April 28. ColoradoDenver, March 10. Wyoming?Laramie, May 2. Montana?Mis-soula, March 24. Oregon?Pinehurst, March 2. Washington?Ta-coma, April 10. Manitoba?Aweme, May 6. Saskatchewan?Regina,April 30. Alberta?Glenevis, April 15. Mackenzie?Fort Simpson,April 17. Alaska?Egg Harbor, May 17.Fall migration.?Late dates of fall departure are : Alberta?Glene-vis, October 10. Saskatchewan?Eastend, October 1. ManitobaAweme, November 27. Washington?Pullman, October 2. OregonPortland, November 17. Montana?Fortine, October 26. Wyo-ming?Laramie, October 20. Colorado?Walden, October 4. NorthDakota?Fargo, October 25. South Dakota?Aberdeen, October 29.Minnesota?Minneapolis, October 29. Wisconsin?Racine, Novem-ber 15. Iowa?Cedar Falls, November 18. Ontario?Guelph, Novem-ber 15. Michigan?Sault Ste. Marie, November 11. QuebecMontreal, October 8. Nova Scotia?Sable Island, November 5.Maine?Unity, November 28. Massachusetts?Marthas Vineyard,November 13.Early dates of fall arrival are: Wisconsin?Madison, August 28.Nebraska?Lincoln, September 4. Kansas?Manhattan, October 4.Iowa?National, September 9. Missouri?St. Louis, September 4.Illinois?Glen Ellyn, August 29. Indiana?Indianapolis, September15. Kentucky?^Lexington, September 17. Tennessee?Nashville, Oc-tober 7. Ohio?Canton, August 29. District of Columbia?^Washing-ton, August 22. Virginia?Salem, October 1. North CarolinaChapel Hill, October 4. Georgia?Atlanta, October 11. AlabamaGreensboro, October 4. Florida?Fernandina, November 1.Casual records.?One was observed near Churchill, Manitoba, onAugust 4, 1934 ; Bermuda Islands, a specimen was taken previous to1884. On Guadalupe Island, Baja California, there is a small resi-dent colony, quite isolated from other breeding areas, as it has neverbeen recorded on the mainland of Baja California.Egg dates.?California : 10 records. May 13 to June 13.Maine : 14 records. May 20 to June 21.Nova Scotia : 7 records. May 5 to June 5.Washington : 14 records, April 30 to June 25.SITTA PUSILLA PUSILLA LathamBROWN-HEADED NUTHATCHPIATE12HABITSThe above name is now restricted to the northern race of the brown-headed nuthatch, with a range entirely north of the Florida boundary
;
36 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
it breeds along the Atlantic slope as far north as southern Delaware, inthe Gulf States as far west as eastern Texas, and up the MississippiValley as far as eastern Arkansas and southern Missouri.Its favorite haunts are in the pine woods, especially in the moreopen parts and in the clearings and burnt-over areas, where it finds anumber of old stumps in which to excavate its nest; but it is foundalso to some extent in mixed forests of pines and hardwoods and insome of the small cypress swamps in such woods. M. P. Skinner(1928) says that, in North Carolina, he has found it "on the trunks ofloblolly pines, long-leaf pines, shrub oaks, gums and hardwood treesof various kinds."Dr. Eugene E. Murphey (1937) says that, in the middle SavannaValley, it "prefers open pine woods and deadenings and seems to havea particular fondness for large pines which have been riven by light-ning. Within the last 15 years, many areas of impounded water havebeen created, some for power, others for fishing, with the resultantdeath of the trees where the water level has been raised. In a shorttime the bark falls from these trees leaving a denuded, decaying trunkwhich seems to be most attractive as a nesting site. Six nests werefound so located in a pond of not more than fifty acres in extent inRichmond County, Georgia, 1920."Nesting.?The brown-headed nuthatch builds its nest in a tree,stump, or post, which apparently is usually, if not invariably, par-tially or wholly excavated by the birds themselves. I can find littleevidence that it occupies old holes of the woodpeckers, but it may en-large a natural crevice or cavity. The height from the ground variesfrom 2 to 50 feet, wherever it can find the right conditions ; but mostof the nests recorded have been far below the higher figure, nearly allof them at less than 10 feet above ground. A preference seems to beshown for pines or pine stubs, often fire-blackened stumps, and fordead trees. Nests have been found in a dead apple-tree stump, a birchstub, a pear tree, an ash tree, and probably in several other kinds oftrees. The cavity is usually excavated to a depth of from 6 to 9 inches,uncommonly more or less. This is sometimes filled with only drygrasses and weed stems, but more often with strips of inner bark, chipsof wood, wool, cotton, strips of corn husks, and perhaps a few feathers
;
the leaves of pine seeds are favorite nesting material and are found inmany nests, sometimes forming the entire nest. Frequently the nesthole is excavated in a fence post, a gate post, or a telegraph or tele-phone pole.Nesting begins early ; both birds take part in excavating the holes
;
and often several holes are started before one is finally selected for thenest. Mr. Skinner (1928), in the sandhills of North Carolina, onMarch 16, 1927, "found a pair industriously digging in the dead stub
BROWN-HEADED NUTHATCH 37
of a small gum tree standing on the shore of a small lake. This stubwas 12 feet high and 8 inches in diameter, and the birds were at work8 feet above the ground. The digging bird (and only one worked atany one time) worked in all positions, but really preferred to hanghead downward from the trunk above the hole ; even when workingin this position, it did not touch its tail to the bark, except accidentally.This Nuthatch gave its strokes like a woodpecker, but slower and ata rate of about 50 strokes a minute for at least 30 minutes. Then itsmate came and relieved it. Although these birds were small, theirdigging strokes were powerful and could be heard quite a distance,perhaps as much as 200 yards, and had a rhythmical beat."C. S. Brimley (Pearson, Brimley, and Brimley, 1919) made somenotes on the time required by four pairs of brown-headed nuthatchesto make and line their nests and lay their eggs: "The first pair Inoted had finished digging out the hole and had commenced to lineit on March 22. Sixteen days later the nest contained four fresheggs. Pair No. 2 had just begun building on April 16, and in 10days more the nest was finished and fresh eggs laid. Pair No. 3worked for 22 days on one hole, and when I then lost patience andbroke it out to see what they had done, they had not even startedto line it. They then commenced on another stump, and in 22 moredays had the excavation completed, lined, and three eggs laid. PairNo. 4 dug a hole, lined it, and laid three eggs in 13 days."Arthur T. Wayne (1910) says that, in South Carolina, "the hole,which is excavated by both sexes, ranges from 6 inches to 90 feetabove the ground, and is generally dug in a dead pine stump or tree,tliough sometimes a fence post is used. * * * The nest is con-structed chiefly of the leaf-like substance in which the seeds of thepine are enclosed, and I have often wondered at the infinite numberof trips the birds make in carrying, one at a time, these soft anddelicate pine seed-wings."Charles K. Stockard (1905) writes thus of the nesting habits ofthis nuthatch in Mississippi
:
In the old pine deadenings of Adams County this small bird was found nestingin considerable numbers. They dug their own burrow but it was a badly botchedaffair, nothing about it suggesting the even smoothness of a woodpecker's hollow.The Nuthatch makes a small entrance through the bark of a dead snag, thenusually, rather than burrow into the stump itself, they scooped out an irregularcavity by removing the soft wood that generally lies just under tlie bark. Thisburrow ran a crooked course but generally extended 10 or 15 inches below theentrance. In this cavity they placed a nest of soft fibers, moss, cotton, andwool. The burrows were usually only a few feet from the ground but one wasfound 12 feet up. * * * On one occasion when the bark was pulled awayexposing a nest while the female sat upon it, she could not be made to leave untilpushed off with my finger.7580G6?48 4
38 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMEggs.?Nests of the brown-headed nuthatch have been reported tocontam as few as three eggs and as many as nine, but the prevailingnumbers are five or six, most commonly five. The eggs are ovate orrounded-ovate in shape, and they have practically no gloss. Theground color is usually white, but sometimes light creamy or buffywhite. They are usually more heavily or more profusely marked thanare the eggs of other nuthatches and are often very handsome. Themarkings may consist of fine dots evenly distributed, or small spotsor blotches more or less concentrated about the larger end ; rarely theground color is largely obscured by the heavier markings. The pre-vailing colors of the markings are various shades of reddish brown,
"ferruginous" or "cinnamon-rufous"; some eggs are quite heavilyblotched with "chestnut"; and some show underlying spots or smallblotches of various shades of lavender or "plumbeous." The measure-ments of 50 eggs average 15.5 by 12.3 millimeters ; eggs showing thefour extremes measure 16.7 by 12.6, 15.2 by 14.2, 14.1 by 12.3, and 16.6by 11.4 millimeters.Young.?^The period of incubation is said to be about 14 days, andWayne (1910) says that both sexes share this duty; the male some-times calls the female oft the nest while she is incubating. Accordingto Mr. Wayne (1910), only one brood is raised in a season. Bothparents help to feed the young in the nest and for some time afterthey leave it, while they continue to travel about in the tree tops infamily parties. Dr. Francis Harper (1929) describes such a familyparty as follows
:
About 5 p. m. on April 10 I noticed a number of Brown-headed Nut-hatchesamong some pines in an old field. Presently three or four of them huddledtogether a couple of feet from the tip of a long limb 35 feet from the ground.The limb was well provided with twigs and needles. Then a couple of othersbegan visiting those lined up on the limb and feeding them. I was astoundedto realize that fledglings were abroad thus early in the season. Sometimes theadults passed over the food from a perch on the same level, but about as oftenas not they clung to the under side of the limb in acrobat fashion and fed theyoungsters from below.By degrees several more came and lined up on the limb, till there were finallysix, if not seven, all touching each other in close array. Some faced in onedirection, some in the other. They kept up a gentle, musical twittering. Theadults often gave their loudest call (a nasal, twanging knee-tnee; knee-tnee-tnee)as they searched the pine cones, limbs, and trunks for food. They also gave,while so engaged, a much lower, conversational note : pik. Once in a while oneof them would hammer some piece of food on a limb, in the manner of one of thelarger species of nuthatches.Up to about 5 : 30 p. m. the old birds fed the youngsters assiduously, returningevery half minute or so. Then, when the latter were pretty well quieted, thoughthe sun had scarcely set, the old birds disappeared for some minutes. Eventuallythey returned, but did not go to the young ones, merely feeding industriously inthe adjacent trees. All this was so like a human family, where the babies aregiven an early supper and put to bed, after which the parents can attend tosome of their own wants.
BROWN-HEADED NUTHATCH 39
I waited till after 6 o'clock to see if the adults might not join their brood, butapparently that was not their intention. * * * it seemed strange that ahole-nesting species should roost thus in the open.Aretas A. Saunders tells me that, at a nest he watched in Alabama,
"both parents fed the young, each showing its individuality by ap-proaching the nest from a different direction than the other. Theycarried insects in their bills, but only a few measuring worms couldbe identified. They removed excreta from the nest and carried itaway."Plumages.?I have seen no very young nestlings of this nuthatch.The Juvenal plumage is fully acquired before the young birds leavethe nest. In this plumage the young bird is similar to the adult, butthe coloration is duller and paler. The brown of the head and neckis grayer, or nearly all gray, and the white nuchal patch is indistinctor obsolete; the greater wing coverts are edged with pale brownishbuff; the white in the tail is less extensive; and the underparts aremore extensively and more deeply washed with brownish buff. Afterthe postjuvenal molt, in summer, the young bird becomes practicallyindistinguishable from the adult.Adults have a complete postnuptial molt, beginning in July, afterwhich in fresh plumage, the brown of the head is darker, and theunderparts are more extensively and more decidedly buffy than inspring birds ; these colors fade more or less before winter. The sexesare alike in all plumages.Food.?I can find no very extensive analysis of the food of thebrown-headed nuthatch. The bird is mainly insectivorous, searchingdiligently in the crevices of the bark on the trunks and branches ofthe pines for its food, even out to the tips of the twigs and among theneedles. It forages, also, on many other kinds of trees, old stumps,fence posts, telegraph poles, buildings, or anywhere else that it canfind insects or spiders hidden in nooks and corners. It seems to beespecially fond of pine seeds, fragments of which are generally foundin such stomachs as have been examined.Arthur H. Howell (1924) says that "10 stomachs from Alabamaexamined in the Biological Survey contained remains of beetles, bugs,cockroaches, caterpillars, ants and other Hymenoptera, scale insects,and fragments of pine seeds." Dr. H. C. Oberholser (1938) statesthat, in Louisiana, "the food of this bird consists chiefly of insects,which include moths, grasshoppers, beetles, many of these injuriouskinds ; ants, caterpillars, and scale insects ; also pine seeds and spiders."These, like all the other nuthatches, are very useful protectors of thetrees and do no damage of consequence.Behavior.?Unlike the rather solitary red-breasted species, thebrown-headed nuthatch is a decidedly sociable bird. During most ofthe year, except when the pairs are busy with their nesting activities,
40 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthese nuthatches are almost gregarious ; family groups or small partiesof them may be seen trooping through the tree tops, chattering infriendly conversational tones, but each one apparently intent on itsown vocation. They seem never still but are always full of life andrestless activity. In their behavior they remind me of the red-belliednuthatch, as they forage through the upper branches out to the endsof the terminal twigs, often hanging head downward from a bunchof pine needles. Like all the nuthatches, they are expert at creepingeither up or down the trunks, often in an inverted position, or atexploring the under sides of branches. Mr. Skinner (1928) says: "Inall this climbing, they move by short hops, generally with their bodiesturned a little to one side or the other, and they may turn after goinga few feet with their bodies turned one way, so that the other side isthen uppermost. Occasionally, they perch crosswise on a twig andmay rest motionless for some time in such a position.
"These little birds are very tame and friendly. When in pairs,they are devoted to each other. * * * Generally, they fly fromtree to tree with a gentl}'^ undulating flight, but with strong and rapidwing-beats."Voice.?The voice of the brown-headed nuthatch is quite unlikethat of either of the northern nuthatches and has been variously in-terpreted. There is a familiar nuthatch quality in the ordinary cha,cha, cha, or cah, cah, cah, or the short pit, pit; we know what kind ofa bird to look for when we hear it coming to us from the tree tops inthe lonesome pine barrens.Mr. Skinner (1928) writes: "Perhaps these nuthatches do not 'talk'as much as some others. Yet, I have heard them utter a sweet little
'pri-u, de-u, de-u,' quite like a song, in the mating season. They alsohave a number of chirps and kissing notes, and a 'dee-dee-dee' com-parable to a Chickadee's note. A lively twitter is the call of oneBrown-headed Nuthatch for its mate."Dr. Chapman (1912) says: "They are talkative sprites, and, like agroup of school children, each one chatters away without paying theslightest attention to what his companions are saying. When feedingthey utter a liquid, conversational p^it-pit, a note which is acceleratedand emphasized as the birds take wing. At intervals, even when theindividuals of a troop are quite widely separated, they all suddenlybreak out into a thin, metallic dee-dee-dee or tnee-tnee-tnee.''''William Brewster (1882b) calls their usual utterance '?''whick-whick-whee'e'e whick-whicker-whickei'.'''' And Nathan Clifford Brown(1878) writes: "While busily in search of food they have a subdued,conversational chatter which almost exactly resembles the notes usu-ally uttered by the Goldfinch when similarly employed. Rathercuriously, the two species have another call in common : the most fre-
BROWN-HEADED NUTHATCH 41quent cry of the Nuthatch is remarkably like the Goldfinch's meditativeheyr-heh.,?indeed, I have sometimes mistaken one for the other. Bothsexes of the present bird have several other call-notes, all of which arecharacterized by a certain reedy harshness rendering them quite unlikethe usual utterances of the two Northern species of the genus."Field marks.?This small nuthatch could hardly be mistaken for thelarger white-breasted species, and it is so plainly colored that it couldeasily be distinguished from the more conspicuously marked red-breasted nuthatch.Winter.?The brown-headed nuthatch seems to be a permanent resi-dent even in the more northern portions of its range ; in North Carolina,Mr. Skinner (1928) found "no variation in numbers during the winteror the migration seasons of other birds." I can find no evidence ofmigration elsewhere, and apparently the birds remain all winter inor near their breeding haunts, with only limited wanderings intoneighboring open spaces, or occasionally into the trees of villages andtowns. They are much in evidence in winter, when they are associatedin bands of from half a dozen to two dozen birds, made up of one orseveral families. These jolly bands of active playful birds are inter-esting to watch, as they chase each other about, almost never still, asif too full of energy and vitality. At this season they often join theloose gatherings of kinglets, titmice, pine warblers, bluebirds, andsmall woodpeckers that are roaming through the woods in winter,though such associations are probably due more to chance than tointent. DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southeastern United States ; nonmigratory.The brown-headed nuthatch breeds north to Arkansas (Newport) ;southeastern Missouri (possibly Ink, Shannon County) ; northernMississippi (luka) ; northwestern South Carolina (Spartanburg) ;eastern Virginia (Amelia and Petersburg) ; eastern Maryland (QueenAnnes County); and southern Delaware (Seaford). East to theAtlantic coast and Bahama Islands (Great Bahama). South tosouthern Florida (Royal Palm Hammock) and the Gulf coast. Westto eastern Texas (Houston) and Arkansas (Newport).The entire species as above outlined is divided into three subspeciesor geographic races. The typical brown-headed nuthatch {S. 'p. pus-ilia) occupies all of the continental range except Florida, where thebirds have been described as the gray-headed nuthatch {S. p. caniceps)
.
The birds of the Bahamas are a separate race.Casual records.?Several were seen near Keokuk, Iowa, in May 1893
;
a specimen was taken at St. Louis, Mo., on May 6, 1878; a specimenwas obtained at Elmira, N. Y., May 24, 1888 ; while one was observedclosely at Haddonfield, N. J., during the winter, about 1876.
42 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMEgg dates.?GQOvg\?i\ 22 records, March 11 to July 20; 11 records,March 24 to April 11, indicating the height of the season.Florida : 19 records, March 4 to May 10; 10 records April 2 to 14.North Carolina : 19 records, April 4 to May 29.Texas : 5 records, March 8 to April 18.SITTA PUSILLA CANICEPS BangsGRAY-HEADED NUTHATCHHABITSThe brown-headed nuthatch of peninsular Florida has now becomethe gray-headed nuthatch, not because it has grown gray with oldage, and not because its head is very decidedly gray at that, but be-cause the keen eyes of its describer have noted this and other minordifferences. Outram Bangs (1898) gives it the following subspecificcharacters: "Size smaller than S. pusilJa pusiUa; bill larger; top ofhead much lighter brown, the feathers tipped and edged still lighter
?often grayish ; loral and post-ocular streak dark brown, in markedcontrast to color of top of head; white spot on nape usually lessextensive ; under parts slightly darker, more plumbeous."The gray-headed nuthatch is recorded by Arthur H. Howell (1932)as "an abundant resident in northwestern Florida; moderately com-mon in the central and southern parts." It has been taken at leastas far south as Miami. Its home is in the extensive open pine forestsof the State, known as the "flatwoods." The northern tourist, seek-ing a winter sojourn in Florida, rides in the southbound train forhour after hour with nothing to see from the car window but appar-ently endless miles of uninteresting fiat pine barrens, until he weariesof the monotony. He does not appreciate the intriguing vastnessof these almost boundless flatwoods; nor does he admire the statelybeauty of tlie longleaf pines and the picturesque charm of the Carib-bean pines. Only the naturalist fully appreciates them, for "there isa nameless charm in the flatwoods, there is enchantment for the reallover of nature in their very sameness. One feels a sense of theirinfinity as the forest stretches away into space beyond the limits ofvision ; they convey to the mind a feeling of boundless freedom. Thesoft, brilliant sunshine filters down through the needle-like leavesand falls in patches on the flower covered floor ; there is a low, hum-ming sound, something mimicking the patter of raindrops, as thewarm southeast wind drifts through the trees; even the lonelinesshas an attraction," as so well expressed by Charles Torrey Simp-son (1923).One may wander for many miles through these parklike woods,along the winding, grass-grown cart roads, but he never seems to getanywhere, as the trees seem to lead him on indefinitely ; he may turn
GRAY-HEADED NUTHATCH 43
aside occasionally to examine the thicker vegetation about a stag-nant pool, or to explore the more abundant bird life in one of thefew scattered "cypress heads"; or in some wide open space, he mayflush the stately sandhill crane from a larger grassy pond. But thethree characteristic birds, which one finds everywhere in the flatwoods,are the red-cockaded woodpecker, the pinewoods sparrow, and thislittle nuthatch. The woodpecker climbs upward on the trunks of thepines ; the sparrow flushes suddenly from any one of the many clumpsof saw palmetto that carpet the forest floor and almost as suddenlydrops out of sight into another patch; and the nuthatch may be seenclimbing upward, downward, or sidewise, in true nuthatch fashion,on the trunk of a pine ; or, perhaps more often, a little troop of themmay be seen foraging in the tree tops and advertising their presencewith their gentle twittering.There is not much more to be said about the habits of the gray-headed nuthatch, which do not seem to differ materially from those ofthe more northern race. The eggs are indistinguishable. The meas-urements of 28 eggs average 15.0 by 11.8 millimeters; the eggs show-ing the four extremes measure 16.1 by 12.1, 15.8 by 12.8, 14.1 by 11.2,and 14.4 by 11.0 millimeters.The following account is contributed by Frederick V. Hebard :
"This race seems to be valid, since it is distinguishable in life fromthe brown-headed nuthatch with comparative ease, although theirhabits seem the same. The range is stated to be 'Peninsula of Florida'(A. O. U. 1931), but the nesting form in southeastern Georgia is un-questionably gray in crown color and within the size limit of thisrace. Comparatively limited records indicate that the gray-headedwithdraws into Florida in cold winters and is replaced to a limiteddegree by the brown-headed nuthatch. In warm winters the species isso much more common that this range withdrawal may not then takeplace. In all years our little friend will be present by the middle ofFebruary and nest-building commences shortly thereafter. Duringthe winter this species is usually seen 20 feet or more above the groundeither in family flocks, flitting from pine tree top to pine tree top, orless commonly inching up or down a pine tree trunk. During nestingseason they are usually seen from 20 feet down, but as soon as nestingis over they seem to return to the tree tops, returning earthward onlyto fill one of their feeding stations in a rotting sapling with acornsfor the nesting season or perhaps to associate with other species in abird wave (cf. Murphey, 1937) of which they do not seem to be anintegral part. These waves seem to result from animation of insectlife in damp, warmish weather after a chill. This results in truecommensalism in such species as the Carolina chickadee, tufted tit-mouse, ruby-crowned kinglet, and black and white and orange-crownedwarblers, which I consider integral parts of bird waves, and in an
44 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMapparent but unreal commensalism, since they feed at another table,of such species as the downy and red-cockaded woodpeckers, phoebe,and brown or gray-headed nuthatches."Nesting.?"My three nest records," continues Mr. Hebard, were allless than 5 feet from the ground, but John W. Burch considered thisunusual, as he has generally found them 4 to 20 feet up. I did seenest-building commencing in a 6-foot-high fence post on February26, 1942, along the May Bluff road in Charlton County. Other recordsare:1. Nest found April 14, 1942, in Camden County in a dead pine stump 4i^feet higli, with an undetermined number of young.2. Nest found April 23, 1942, in Charlton County in a charred pine stump 3 feethigh, with young almost ready to fly. The nest hole was so deep that the nestwas not over 20 inches from the ground. Wben examined on May 13, 1942, thenest was empty except for great numbers of creamy-white pinfeathers. Thisnest was composed of strips of cypress bark, unmatured pine mast, one or twostrands of Spanish moss, and an unidentified wool-like substance that may wellhave been an insect nest.3. Nest found April 12, 1942, in Camden County, containing one egg abouta foot down the top of a 4-foot pine fence post. From May 13 to 16, this nestcontained three well-grown young whose mouths were always open when observed.On July 1, this nest was found covered by an incompleted bluebird nest.It is extremely interesting to compare this with what has beenwritten about the same race 40 or 50 miles away (Grimes, 1932) : "Abrown (-gray) -head was noted working on a newly started nest holein a pine stump on February 20. Others were found from time totime, the two latest probably being second-brood nests?one May 16with four large young, the other May 18, with an undetermined num-ber of nearly fledged young."SITTA PYGMAEA PYGMAEA VigorsPYGMY NUTHATCHHABITSThe type race of the pygmy nuthatch is now restricted to a verynarrow range in the Transition Zone of the coast region of California,from San Luis Obispo County to Mendocino County.A. J. van Rossem (1929) says that "the color characters distin-guishing ;?2/^maea from meZanoi^w * * * are more brownish pileumand nape, combined with a relatively indistinct ocular streak which isnever prominent and in extreme cases so nearly concolor with the headas to be almost indistinguishable."Grinnell and Linsdale (1936) say that this subspecies, which wasnamed from specimens collected at Monterey, "is restricted quiteclosely to the southern portion of the humid coast strip," as mentionedabove. They further state
:
PYGMY NUTHATCH 45[It] "lives commonly in the same habitat, the coniferous forest, with the SantaCruz Chestnut-sided Chickadee; and it does so, therefore, compatibly. Ourobservations show the niche occupied by the nuthatch to be essentially different.While the two birds have about the same forage beat and cruising radius, oftenindeed seen closely associated, the nuthatch seeks (at least in the season ofgreatest food scarcity) static insect food in crevices of dry cones, twigs, andsmaller branches in the subperipheral parts of the trees, and it uses its specializeddigging tool (the bill) to dislodge or uncover these insects. In other words,the nuthatch has a food source beyond the usual reach of the chickadee. Andthen, too, with suitably rotted boles of trees available, it digs its own nestingcavity ; It does not tolerate the chickadee.Nesting.?The same observers write
:
The breeding season for this species [in the Point Lobos Reserve] was a longone, with a prolonged period of preparation. As early in the spring as February18, there were signs of pairing in this bird. In an excited flock in a pine, oneindividual was seen feeding another. Later, on several occasions, a male ( ?) wasseen to feed its mate.Actual excavation at a nesting site was noted first on March 20. Just beforenoon, a nuthatch was digging 15 feet up on the west side of a 25-foot pine stump.It left the cavity, barely started, but returned again in 5 minutes. More thana month later, on April 24, a nuthatch, then out of sight, was still digging atthis cavity. * * *Thirty-eight occupied nesting cavities were found, all of them in pines ordead remains of pines. The sites selected were high ones, averaging 30 feetabove the ground and running as high as 60 feet. Only seven nests were foundlower than 20 feet and only one under 10 feet. Sometimes the excavation wasstarted at some crevice or break already existing in the tree, but more often,and especially when the wood was partly decayed, it was started on a plainsurface. Once a cavity started by a haii'y woodpecker was deepened and occupiedby a pair of nuthatches. * * *The bluebirds were the most serious competitors of this species for nest sites,and in several instances, in which the entrances were of sufficient size, theytemporarily or even permanently ousted the smaller birds from a cavity. Nearlyalways in such cases the nuthatches had been the excavators, but the larger birdsseemed usually to be the aggressors. At one stump where nuthatches weredigging only 2 feet below a bluebird's nest, there were alarm notes and activitywhen the bluebirds were near. The nuthatches usually retreated, but theysometimes kept on working.The birds at one nest showed great excitement when a hairy woodpeckercame near. Chickadees were competitors of close to nuthatch size. Once onewas seen pursued by a chickadee, and at another time one was chasing a chick-adee. In general, however, these two species avoided one another by nestingat wholly different levels. One pair of nuthatches which was feeding youngchased away a male linnet and, later, a violet-green swallow, from the vicinityof the nest.Mrs. Amelia S. Allen tells me that in fall these nuthatches "wanderthrough the lower valleys where their chattering notes betray theirpresence in the tops of the trees among the cones. At Inverness, inMarin County, they are much at home among the Bishop pines, andat Carmel, in Monterey County, among the Monterey pines."
46 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe eggs of this subspecies are indistinguishable from those of thefollowing form. The measurements of 40 eggs of the present raceaverage 15.4 by 12.1 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 16.3 by 12.8, 14.5 by 12.3, and 14.7 by 11.2 millimeters.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southern British Columbia to southern Mexico.The pygmy nuthatch breeds north to southern British Columbia(Cawston, Penticton, and Newgate). East to southern British Co-lumbia (Newgate) ; western Montana (probably Belton and the Bear-tooth Mountains) ; Wyoming (near Laramie) ; Colorado (Estes Park,mountains west of Boulder, Golden, and Fort Garland) ; possiblynortheastern Oklahoma (Kenton) ; New Mexico (Sangre de Cristo,Capitan, and Sacramento Mountains) ; southwestern Texas (Guada-lupe Mountains) ; and Veracruz (Las Vigas). South to Veracruz(Las Vigas) ; Puebla (Mount Orizaba and Rio Frio) ; Morelos (Huit-zilac) ; and Michoacan (Mount Tancitaro). West to Michoacan(Mount Tancitaro) ; Jalisco (San Sabastian) ; Baja California(Sierra San Pedro Martir and Laguna Hansen) ; California (MountPinos, Monterey, Point Reyes, and Inglenook) ; Oregon (Pinehurstand Warm Springs Reservation) ; Washington (Seattle and MountBaker); and British Columbia (Cawston).The pygmy nuthatch is not migratory, but it does wander aboutsome in winter, at which time it has reached western Nebraska.The distribution as given is for the entire species, which has beendivided into four subspecies or geographic races within our limits.The pygmy nuthatch {S. p. pygmaea) occurs in the coast region ofCalifornia from Mendocino County south to San Luis Obispo County.The white-naped nuthatch {S. p. leuconucha) breeds from Riversideand San Diego Counties, Calif., south through the San Pedro MartirMountains, Baja California. The Nevada nuthatch {S. p. canescens)occurs in the Charleston and Sheep Mountains in southern Nevada.The black-eared nuthatch {S. p. melanotis) occupies the Rocky Moun-tain region from southern British Columbia southward to New Mexicoand Arizona, and possibly Sonora, and the Sierra Nevada inCalifornia.Egg dates.?Arizona : 9 records, May 7 to June 6.California : 89 records, April 17 to June 27 ; 45 records. May 16 toJune 3, indicating the height of the season.Colorado: 22 records, May 13 to June 19; 11 records, May 22 toJune 12.Oregon : 17 records, May 3 to June 21.
BLACK-EARED NUTHATCH 47SITTA PTGMAEA MELANOTIS van RossemBLACK-EARED NUTHATCHPlate 13HABITSUp to the time that this race was separated, in 1929, all the pygmynuthatches of the western United States were supposed to belong tothe type race. The species is widely distributed and was alwaysknown to all the earlier writers as the pygmy nuthatch, Sitta pygmaeafygmaea. But inelanotis^ as now recognized, is the most widely dis-tributed and the best-known race and must be given the most consider-ation here, even if the new name is not always used.A. J. van Rossem (1929) gives as the subspecific characters of Tuiel-anotis: "Similar in size to Sitta pygmaea pygmaea^ but top of headand nape decidedly darker and more slaty (less brownish) ; streakfrom bill through eye broader and often nearly black, contrastingstrongly with the white or buffy white malar region. Differs fromSitta pygmaea leuconucha in decidedly smaller size and very muchdarker coloration."It occupies the entire Rocky Mountain region, from southern BritishColumbia and northern Idaho south to the Mexican boundary, andwest to eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, the Sierra Nevada, andthe San Bernardino Mountains of California. Mr. van Rossem ( 1929
)
says that "in southern California, intergradation with leuconucha isvery gradual and birds from the extreme southern Sierras, Mt. Pinos,the San Gabriel and San Bernardino Mountains are definitely largerthan northern Sierra and Rocky Mountain series."The black-eared nuthatch is a mountain bird, breeding in the Tran-sition Zone at elevations from 3,500 to 10,000 feet in various parts ofits range. Its distribution seems to coincide very closely with that ofthe yellow pine, where it is generally common and often really abun-dant. In the San Bernardino Mountains, Dr. Grinnell (1908) found it
"most numerous in the lower Transition zone, in the Jeffrey and yellowping belt." It is doubtless found to some extent among otherspecies of pines, though the yellow-pine belt seems to be its favoritebreeding ground. In the Huachuca Mountains we found it verycommon in the pines above 8,000 feet and up nearly to the summit,where the open growth of pines ended at about 9,000 feet. It reachesabout the same altitudes in Nevada and Colorado ; and, in New Mexico,Mrs. Bailey (1928) says: "The Pygmies are characteristic birds of theTransition Zone yellow pine belt, following it on steep hot slopes tothe extreme upper limit of the zone, sometimes as high as 10,000 feet."
48 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMAccording to Grinnell and Linsdale (1936) it is resident "along thewest flank of the Sierra Nevada, at altitudes of 3,500 to 6,000 feet, ac-cording to slope exposure and other factors."W. E. Griffee tells me that "the black-eared nuthatch, like the short-tailed chickadee, is found throughout the pine forests of eastern Ore-gon." According to Fred Mallery Packard (MS.), of Estes Park,Colo., "in spring and fall, small bands of pygmy nuthatches wanderthrough the yellow pines, calling noisily ; but they scatter during thenesting season and are seldom heard then. Nests have been found,between June 5 and 18, at 8,200 feet, and it is certain that they nestwell into the Canadian zone. There is a vertical migration, sometimesto the plains."Nesting.?It was on the summits of the Huachuca Mountainsthat I made the acquaintance of the tiny black-eared nuthatch, thenknown as the pygmy nuthatch. On these summits at elevationsbetween 8,000 and 9,000 feet, above the steepest slopes, the surfaceof the gi'ound was nearly level in some places, or rollmg in gentleslopes in others. It was covered with a fine parklike, open forestof tall pines of two or three species that towered skyward to heightsof 80 or 100 feet. Scattered through this forest were a number oftall dead pines and lower stubs. Here, on May 7, 1922, many ofthe nuthatches were already paired and were busy with their prepara-tions for nesting. The nesting holes were easy to recognize, as littlecircular openings, usually near the tops of the dead pine stubs andoften under the stump of a branch. One nest that we investigatedwas 30 feet from the ground in such a situation, but no eggs had beenlaid in it. Another, similarly located, was not examined, as we wereapparently too early. My companion, Frank Willard, returned tothis locality on May 30 and collected three sets of eggs of this nut-hatch, consisting of six, seven, and eight eggs, respectively ; the nestswere all in dead pine stubs, 20, 40, and 50 feet above ground; thedepth of one cavity, evidently excavated by the birds, was 10 inches
;
the nest lining consisted mainly of "pine bud hulls," with a fewfeathers.Nests are not always placed at such heights above ground. Inthe San Bernardino Mountains, at about 7,000 feet elevation. Dr.Grinnell (1908) found a nest "in a rotten pine stub eight feet abovethe ground. The cavity seemed to have been excavated by the birdsthemselves. Two blows on the stub brought out the setting bird,which at once disappeared. After a while what proved to be themale nuthatch made his appearance with an insect in his mouth,an indication that the male feeds the female on the nest. The nestwas a felted mass of rodent fur and plant down. There were sevenslightly incubated eggs."
BLACK-EARED NUTHATCH 49Irene G. Wheelock (1904) writes:At Lake Tahoe a hollow post several feet out in the water held a uest ofthese gray midgets, the entrance being a crevice scarcely large enough fora mouse. Both birds worked busily carrying feathers into this crevice untilit seemed there must be at least a peck of them tucked away inside. AlthoughI stood in a boat with hand resting on the post not a foot from their doorway,they came and went as unconcernedly as if no one were within miles of them.* * * Another nest found, June 14, ten feet from the ground in a deadpine was also entered through a crevice; the birds displayed the samefearlessness, going inside with food, while the bird-lover stood on her horse'sback and tried to make the opening large enough to admit a friendly thoughcurious hand. The brave little bird would light on the trunk just above thenest hole, and, running quickly down, dodge in when the fingers of the in-vestigator were pulling at the crevice.Another nest near Lake Tahoe is reported by Claude Gignoux(1924), in "a hole about 10 feet from the ground in an upright post.* * * The nest, entered by a small, irregular orifice, was in adecayed portion of the pole, where excavation was easy. * * *The pole in which the nest was placed stood at the junction of twoboard walks, not over 20 feet from an occupied cottage. Peoplewere passing every few minutes, workmen were repairing a drainand board walk within 100 feet, and automobiles were being repaired,moved about, and their engines raced by mechanics, within 50 or 75yards. The adult birds were so intent upon their duties [feedingtheir young] that none of these activities disturbed them."There is a set of eggs in the J. P. Norris collection taken from adeserted woodpecker's hole, one from a hole bored by the birds ina Cottonwood tree, and another from "under loose bark on a deadtree". Probably any suitable cavity that is available may beoccupied.From the mountains northeast of Silver City, N. Mex., J. S. Ligonwrote to Mrs. Bailey (1928) in April 1919, as follows : "I watched twoof these little fellows laboring at a nest hole 18 feet up in a dead pine.One was inside, making the noise of a woodpecker. I watched theperformance for about 10 minutes, during which time it made threetrips out to the entrance to fling the chips and dust to the wind with aquick shake of the bill. It came out apparently to rest and the otherwent quickly in, and after it had hammered a little, came up with itscuttings, flinging them away and quickly returning. On the 18th or19th, it seemed that all the Pygmies, as if by general order, wereworking in nest holes."Mr. Griffee writes to me that the nests of this nuthatch, in easternOregon, "usually are in ponderosa pine snags. The larger snags, afterbeing dead for several years, have a layer of punky sapwood, 3 or 4inches thick, and deep season checks which need only a little enlarging
50 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMto serve as entrances to nesting cavities. Since the entrances are irreg-ular in shape, being 1 to 1 14 inches wide by li/4 inches or more high,and usually 10 to 25 feet up, they are not at all conspicuous. Thebottom of the nesting cavity is usually about 8 inches below theentrance, and in some cases it is so small that a family of six or sevenyoung nuthatches must find it very cramped quarters. The lining,often scanty, is of shreds of bark, bits of cocoons or of wool, and a fewfeathers."Eggs.?Pygmy nuthatches may lay anywhere from four to nine eggsto a set : the smaller numbers are unusual, and most of the sets consistof six to eight eggs. They vary in shape from ovate to short-ovateand have practically no gloss. The ground color is pure white, andthey are usually unevenly and rather sparingly sprinkled with finedots of reddish brown or brick red, "hazel," or "vinaceous-cinnamon"
;
some eggs are more heavily spotted about the larger end, rarely else-where, with these colors or "chestnut." Eggs of this species do notshow so much variation as those of some of the other nuthatches, andare not so handsomely marked. The measurements of 40 eggs average15.3 by 11.9 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure16.3 by 11.4, 15.0 by 12.5, 14.2 by 12.2, and 15.2 by 11.1 millimeters.Young.?I can find no definite statement as to the period of incuba-tion, which is probably about 14 days. Perhaps both sexes share inthis duty, but the fact that the male is known to feed the female on thenest indicates that she probably does most, if not all, of the incubating.Both parents feed the young in the nest and for some time after theyleave it. Mrs. Wheelock (1904), at the nest she watched, noted that
"both male and female were busy hunting some sort of white larvaethat they obtained from an old stump. The adults did not swallowthese, but carried them in their bills?which convinced me that thenestlings were at least five days old."Mr. Gignoux (1924) writes:Both parent birds were engaged in the task of carrying what appeared to beflies, worms, and white grubs, and both birds were often in sight at the sametime. The first visit was recorded at 2 : 26 in the afternoon and by 3 : 27 thebirds had made 24 calls, carrying food each time. At this rate the adult birdswere making over 300 trips a day. The longest interval between visits was 8minutes, the shortest was half a minute. The parents did their foraging innearby pine trees and well up from the ground, from about 50 to 80 feet or morehigh. The insects were thrust into the bills of the young the instant the parentsarrived, without the slightest delay, and the old birds were off for more, now andthen stopping a second or so to remove material from the nest. * * *During the days on which I watched the birds, foraging was done in a groupof about 20 large pine trees. The flights were always direct from near the nestto and from these pines. I measured what seemed the distance of these treesfrom the nest and estimated that 150 yards was the average round trip and thatthe total distance traveled each day was approximately 30 miles.
BLACK-EARED NUTHATCH 51Mrs. Wheelock (1905) tells of another nest, not those referred toabove
:
In this case there were newly hatched young in the nest ; and, as the adultswent inside to feed them not more than two feet from my eyes, I was able to seeperfectly that the food was carried in the throat. Of course this could onlymean regurgitation ; but not until the third day could I get at the nestlings toexamine the crops. The contents consisted of larvae of insects and ant eggs, allpartially digested. On the fifth day the examination indicated the presenceof fresh or unregurgitated insect and grass food. On the sixth day most of thefood given was fresh, but on two occasions the adults visited the nests with novisible supply in the bills. No record was kept of this brood after the sixth day.Two other broods of this species were recorded at the same place and withpractically the same results.J. Eugene Law (1929), while studying the behavior of a pair ofthese nuthatches, noted that "when a fecal sac was brought out, it wasnot dropped in flight but was carried out and left attached to somehigh limb. One particular limb of another tree received it on morethan one occasion that I saw. After depositing the feces the birdwiped and rapped its beak on the limb vigorously." He also relatesthe following
:
One day as Dr. Tracy I. Storer and I stood near, a parent, grasping with itsbeak, seized a nestling by the shoulder, and after a rough tussle pulled the chickout and let it go fluttering to the ground. There, after a rest, during whichparental solicitude obviously urged action, the fledging fluttered along theground directly to the base of a huge live pine near-by and began to climb.A yard or two at a time, intervalled by long rests, it finally worked up the trunkto the first limbs, some 50 feet. The astonishing thing was that the fledglingelevated itself up trunk mainly by rapid fluttering of its wings while keeping thebody axis parallel with the perpendicular tree trunk, all the while pawing thebark furiously with its feet. Progress was slow, dangerously near no progress,it seemed.After the young have left the nest, they travel about in a familyparty until they learn to shift for themselves. These parties later joinin larger flocks, made up of several families, and roam through thetree tops during fall and winter.Plumages.?Ridgway (1904) says that young pygmy nuthatches inJuvenal plumage are "similar to adults, but pileum and hindneckgray, only slightly, if at all, different from color of back, and sides andflanks pale buffy brown or brownish buff instead of gray." Appar-ently, after the postjuvenal molt in August, old and young birds arepractically indistinguishable. Adults have a complete postnuptialmolt beginning about the middle of July and lasting through most ofAugust; I have seen adults in fresh plumage as early as August 20.In fresh fall plumage the colors are richer and darker, the under partsdecidedly buff, and the pale spot on the nape is partially concealedwith gray tips.
52 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFood.?Proi. F. E. L. Beal (1907) examined only 31 stomachs ofthe California races of the pygmy nuthatch and found the food to bedivided into approximately 83 percent animal matter and 17 percentvegetable. The largest item of animal food was Hymenoptera, mostlywasps with a few ants, amounting to 38 percent of the whole. He-miptera came next, 23 percent; "a large proportion of these belongto the family Cercopidae, commonly known as spittle-insects, fromthe fact that they develop inside of a froth-like substance resemblingsaliva produced in summer upon grass and various plants and trees.While none of these insects have yet become pests, there can be nodoubt that collectively they do considerable harm to plants, as some-times they are very abundant and subsist entirely upon their sap."Eighteen out of twenty stomachs from the pine woods of Pacific Grove
"contained remains of Cercopidae, and six were filled with them. Theaverage for the 18 stomachs is a little more than 76 percent of all thefood." Beetles of various families formed about 12 percent of thefood, caterpillars 8 percent, and spiders 1 percent. "The vegetableportion is made up almost entirely of seeds, of which a majority arethose of conifers, as was to be expected from the habits of the bird."A few other items have been mentioned by others. R. C. Tate(1925) adds, from Oklahoma, moths, pine nuts, and grasshoppers.Junius Henderson (1927) quotes from Professor Aughey's first reportthat "four Nebraska stomachs averaged 23 locusts, 4 other insects andfour seeds each."Most of the pygmy nuthatch's food is obtained in the topmostbranches of the pine, where it climbs over and under the branches andout to the outermost twigs and among the pine needles. But it alsoforages on the trunks in true nuthatch fashion, looking for hiddeninsects, or resorts to the ground to pick up insects and seeds. It cancrack the pine nuts with its strong little bill and pick out tlie seeds.It has been seen darting out into the air after flying insects, or flutter-ing in front of tlie terminal twigs of the conifers to pick oif insectswhile poised in the air.Behavior.?As may be seen from some of the above quotations,Pygn^y nuthatches are tame, confiding little birds, showing great con-fidence in human beings or being quite oblivious to their intimatepresence ; and they have even been known to pursue their nesting activ-ities close to those of humans, apparently unafraid. Their behavioris much like that of their near relatives, the brown-headed nuthatchesof the southeastern States ; like them they live mostly in the tree topsin merry little parties; they are even more gregarious than their east-ern cousins. Except when the pairs are busy with their family affairs,these little birds are almost always seen in small flocks, which increasegreatly in size during fall and winter. Mr. Swarth (1904b) says:"During the migrations they seem to form a sort of nucleus for other
BLACK-EARED NUTHATCH 53birds to gather around, and are usually accompanied by a number ofmigrating warblers, vireos, etc. Many of them [in Arizona] remainin small flocks up to the middle of May, though others may be seen atwork at their nests in some old stump early in April; so by the timethe last of them are paired off, those that first went to work are nearlyready to appear with their broods, and there is consequently hardlyany time when Pygmy Nuthatches are not to be seen in flocks."These flocks of sociable little birds are full of incessant activity, asthey drift through the tree tops in loose formations, twittering con-stantly to keep in touch with each other, reminding one of the flocksof bushtits that travel in a similar disconnected way through theshrubbery, yet definitely associated. In some ways, too, their behaviorreminds one of the titmice or kinglets, especially in their feeding habits.J. Eugene Law (1929) has published an interesting paper on theclimbing technique of this nuthatch, well illustrated with photographsshowing the specialized use of the feet. He says: "Down-tree prog-ress for a nuthatch seems to be a series of sidling hops or drops. Whilethe bird is moving, its body rarely, perhaps never, parallels the axisof the tree, and at each pause one foot is usually apparent, clingingup-trunk, its grasp transverse to the axis of the tree. When the birdstops, its body may turn so that the body and head point directlydownward, and even then there is always that foot up-trunk holdingon while the other foot holds the body out from the tree. * * * j^is obvious, if we think a minute, that in this position the function ofthe up foot is to cling by the toes, while that of the down foot is tosupport. * * * The sole of the lower foot is depressed against thetrunk wMle that of the upper foot is free." All these points are wellshown in his photographs, with the feet widely spread in all crosswiseor head-downward positions.Very little is known about where and how birds spend their nights.Night roosting of passerine birds has been observed in only a fewinstances for very few species. From what little has been seen, wemight infer that hole-nesting birds may prefer to roost in such cavities,though other methods of roosting have been observed. Mrs. A. H.Jones (1930) watched a family of black-eared nuthatches, in Colorado,go to roost for several nights in a bird box made of slabs and attachedto the trunk of a large yellow pine. They came regularly each nightat about 6 : 45, entered the box, and apparently spent the night there.But they were not allowed to enjoy this comfortable retreat very longbefore a house wren appeared one morning and tried to take possessionof the box. For a few nights the nuthatches were able to drive outthe wren, but eventually the wren secured a mate and filled up the boxwith twigs, which the nuthatches were unable to remove, and the nut-hatches had to give it up.758066?48 5
54 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMVoice.?Pygmy nuthatches are noisy birds, and their notes are quitedifferent from those of other nuthatches ; especially noticeable is theentire absence of the familiar yank-yank of the white-breasted species.Ralph Hoffmann (1927) describes it very well as follows: "Theycall to one another incessantly with a high staccato tl-dt, ti-di, ti-di,which becomes a rapid series of high cheeping notes when a numberare together, and in spring is combined with a vigorous trill. As theyfly they utter a soft kit, kit, kit:' Robert Ridgway (1877) thoughtthat "the notes of this species greatly resemble in their high pitch the
'peet' or 'peet-weet' of certain Sandpipers (as Tringoides and Rhyaco-philus), but they are louder and more piercing."Field marks.?The pygmy nuthatches can be easily distinguishedfrom the other two western nuthatches by the absence of the conspicu-ous black caps of the white-breasted and red-bellied species. It ismuch smaller than the former and slightly smaller than the latter.Its coloration is dull, and the black line through the eye and the whitespot on the nape are not very conspicuous, except at short range. Itsvery short tail, its jerky flight, and its habit of crawling over trunksand branches mark it as a nuthatch.Fall and winter.?These are the seasons of most conspicuous activityand the greatest concentration into large flocks. As fall approachesthe little family parties join with other families, adding to theirnumbers as the season progresses, until the flocks increase to as manyas 50 or 100 birds. As these great flocks travel through the woods,they may occupy several trees, but, like the flocks of bushtits, they keepin touch with the general throng with their ceaseless chatter, andthe main flock moves along. Associated with these flocks there maybe a few white-breasted nuthatches, chickadees, titmice, warblers, orcreepers, or perhaps one of the smaller woodpeckers, all intent ontheir own affairs, but on peaceful terms. The woods seem alive withthe merry parties, in which the shrill notes of the nuthatches aremost conspicuous.In winter the nuthatches retreat more or less from the higher alti-tudes in which they nested, and drift downward, Mrs. Bailey (1928)says as low as 4,000 feet in New Mexico. They descend to some extentfrom the pine belt and may be seen foraging among the evergreenoaks, or in the juniper and pinyon belt, at this season. But at the firsthint of spring they move up again into their beloved yellow pines.SITTA PYGMAEA LEUCONUCHA AnthonyWHITE-NAPED NUTHATCHHABITSThis nuthatch was originally described as a local race, living in thehigher parts of the Sierra San Pedro Martir in Baja California, butit is now also recognizgd as the resident form in the southern counties,
NEVADA NUTHATCH 55Riverside and San Diego, in California. A. J. van Rossem (1929)remarks : '"''Leuconucha in typical form occurs only south of the LowerCalifornia boundary. Birds from north of that point are somewhatintermediate toward melanotis^ but a good series from the San JacintoMountains demonstrates clearly that leucormcha extends to thatrange."A. W. Anthony (1889), in naming it, says that it "differs from S.pygmaea in larger bill, grayer head, more conspicuous nuchal patchand whiter underparts. Compared with the other races, leucormchais characterized by largest size, particularly of bill ; paler, more ashycoloration of the upper parts, and least buffy underparts. I can notagree that the amount of white on the nape is of diagnostic value."Mr. Anthony (1893) called the white-naped nuthatch "the mostabundant species on the San Pedro Martir mountain; found every-where in the pines. Upon our arrival May 5 this species was mating
;
noisy little companies of five or six to a dozen were seen chasing oneanother through the pines, chattering and calling from daylight tilldark; although dozens of nests were discovered all were practicallyinaccessible. A favorite location for the burrow was on the underside of a dead branch, well away from the trunk of a large pine, andfrom twenty-five to a hundred feet from the ground."The eggs of the white-naped nuthatch are apparently indistinguish-able from those of the other races of the species. The measurementsof 23 eggs average 15.7 by 12.0 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 16.3 by 12.3, 16.0 by 12.4, 15.0 by 11.7, and 15.4 by11.6 millimeters. SITTA PYGMAEA CANESCENS van RossemNEVADA NUTHATCHMr. van Rossem (1931) described this local race of the pygmy nut-hatch as "exactly resembling Sifta pygmaea leuconucha Anthony ofnorthern Lower California in pale, ashy gray coloration, but size, par-ticularly of bill, decidedly smaller. Similar in size to Sitta pygmaeamelanotis van Rossem of the Rocky Mountains, but coloration palerand more ashy throughout, particularly on the head. Measurementsof the type, which was selected as showing the racial average in sizeand color, are : wing, 64.0 mm. ; tail, 34.0; culmen from base, 15.0."He gives the range as "Charleston and Sheep Mountains, extremesouthern Nevada, where resident in the yellow pine association from7,000 to 8,500 feet," and says : "The series of 11 canescens are all in rela-tively fresh fall plumage, indeed seven of them had only just com-pleted the annual moult at the time of collection. The color char-acters are, therefore, true ones and not the result of wear or fade.* * * -pj^g Lower California race, leuconucha^ the only one re-sembling canescens closely in color, measures on the basis of 10 adultmales from the San Pedro Martir Mountains : wing, 68.0 mm. ; tail,36.0 ; culmen from base, 18.2."
56 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFamily CERTHIIDAE: CreepersCEKTHIA FAMILIARIS AMERICANA BonaparteBROWN CREEPERPlates 14, 15CoNTKIBUTED BY WiNSOB MaREETT TyLEBHABITSThe brown creeper, as he hitches along the bole of a tree, looks likea fragment of detached bark that is defying the law of gravitation bymoving upward over the trunk, and as he flies off to another tree heresembles a little dry leaf blown about by the wind. As he climbsup the tree, he is feeding, picking up tiny bits of food that he findshalf-hidden in the crevices of bark along his path. In his search hedoes not work like the woodpeckers, those skilled mechanics whosework requires the use of carpenter's tools, the drill and chisel. Thecreeper's success depends on painstaking scrutiny, thoroughness,and almost, it seems, conscientiousness. Edmund Selous (1901),speaking of the European tree-creeper, a bird close to ours in habit,uses the exact word to show us the creeper at work. "His head," hesays, "which is as the sentient handle to a very delicate instrument,is moved with such science, such dentistry, that one feels and appre-ciates each turn of it."Spring.?The creeper is rather a solitary bird as we see it in itswinter quarters and in spring on the way northward to its summerhome. We often find it, to be sure, feeding near chickadees, nut-hatches, and golden-crowned kinglets, but there seems to be no closeassociation between it and the other members of the gathering. Thecreeper pays little or no attention to the birds about him and by nomeans always follows them in their wanderings.There is little change in his behavior as spring advances; he isthe same calm, preoccupied searcher he has been all through the win-ter, but before the close of March he may, on rare occasions, sing hisdelicate song. When we hear it?a strangely wild song for so prosaica character?we, who live not too far from the creeper's northernforests, suspect that the singer may have a mate, or is attempting toacquire one, and if the song continues into May, and if the birdfrequents a locality where the trees are broken, burned, or dying, weshall do well to look about for a nest, or the preparation for one,because the bird often breeds well to the south of its normal range,provided that the surroundings are favorable for nesting.Ordinarily we meet but one creeper, or at most two, in a woodlandof moderate extent, but Dayton Stoner (1932) states: "During May1929 season, when the brown creeper was unusually common in severaldistricts on the south side of Oneida Lake [New York], I often came
BROWN CREEPER 57upon small groups of three to six individuals in the woods, all withina few yards of one another. Perhaps not another individual wouldbe seen for an hour or even during the entire morning. This apparentconcentration of birds within localized areas led me to believe that amore or less concerted movement was taking place and that the speciestraveled in loose groups, not close enough to be termed flocks."Courtshij).?The creeper's courtship appears to consist of a displayof agility in the air. Once in a while we see a bird launch out from atree and at top speed twine around it close to the bark, then dartaway and twist around another tree, or weave in and out among thesurrounding trees and branches. He has thrown off his staid creeperhabits and has become for the time a care-free aerial sprite, givinghimself up, it seems, to an orgy of speed, wild dashes, and twistsand turns in the air. But after a round or two, back on the barkagain, he resumes his conventional routine and becomes once more abrown creeper.Chreswell J. Hunt (1907) describes a somewhat similar excursionthrough the air, associated with the pursuit of another creeper. Hesays:It was ou March 9, 1904, * * * that I saw two Brown Creepers engagedin this game of tag. In my experience the Brown Creeper always alights nearthe base of a tree trunk and then works upward, his course being a spiral oae
?
he travels round and round as lie climbs upward. In the pursuit I speak of thissame program was carried out, only instead of climbing up the trunk the birdswould fly up. They alighted near each other upon the tree, then number onewould take wing and fly upward, describing one or two complete spirals aboutthe trunk and again alight upon it with number two following in close pursuit.To travel in a spiral course seemed to be such a well formed habit that theycould not get away from it. It was not simply a chance flight, for I saw itrepeated again and again.Nesting.?There is a bit of interesting history in regard to thenesting of the brown creeper. Alexander Wilson (Wilson and Bona-parte, 1832) says: "The brown creeper builds his nest in the hollowtrunk or branch of a tree, where the tree has been shivered, or a limbbroken off, or where squirrels or woodpeckers have wrought out anentrance, for nature has not provided him with the means of excavat-ing one for himself." He saj^^s nothing, however, about the nestitself. Thomas Nuttall's (1832) remarks on the situation of the nestconsist, as usual, in a rephrasing of Wilson's report, but Audubon(1841a), while obviously copying Wilson in speaking of the situationof the nest, adds that he himself has found nests, saying: "All thenests which I have seen were loosely formed of grasses and lichensof various sorts, and warmly lined with feathers, among which I inone instance found some from the abdomen of Tetrao Umbellus.''''Many years later, with the idea of setting right a long-standingerror of the older ornithologists as to the situation of the creeper's
58 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
nest, Dr. Thomas M. Brewer (1879) published an article in the springof 1879 in which he says
:
In "North American Birds" [i. e., Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1874] it issaid to breed in hollow trees, in the deserted holes of Woodpeckers, and Indecayed stumps and branches of trees. This statement is rather legendary thanpositively ascertained, and I am now inclined to somewhat modify this opinion,the more so that I learn from Mr. Dresser that the European C. familiarisusually places its nest between the detached bark and the trunk of a largetree. This exactly describes the situation of the nest found in Grand Menan,and of six or seven other nests since identified and described to me. All ofthese nests have been in just such situations and in no other. Instead of thisbeing exceptional, it is probable that this is our Creeper's most usual modeof nesting, and that this is one of several reasons that unite to make this nestone so rarely discovered.The hint contained in this article aroused the interest of WilliamBrewster (1879), who, in the following spring, searched the regionof Lake Umbagog, Maine, for creepers^ nests and in the fall publishedan account of his investigations. "During former seasons," he says,
"1 had wasted much valuable time in sounding old Woodpecker'sholes and natural cavities about places where the birds were evidentlynesting; but, with the right clew at last in my possession, I succeededon this occasion in finding quite a number of nests." The followingdescription of a nest is a good example of those he found
:
The tree selected was a tall dead fir, that stood in the shallow water justoutside the edge of the living forest, but surrounded by numbers of its equallyunfortunate companions. Originally killed by inundation, its branches had longago yielded to the fury of the winter storms, and the various destroying agentsof time had stripped off the greater part of the bark until only a few persistentscales remained to chequer the otherwise smooth, mast-like stem. One of these,in process of detachment, had started away from the trunk below, while itsupper edges still retained a comparatively firm hold, and within the space thusformed the cunning little architect had constructed her nest. The whole widthof the opening had first been filled with a mass of tough but slender twigs (manyof them at least 6 inches in length), and upon this foundation the nest properhad been constructed. It was mainly composed of the fine inner bark of varioustrees, with an admixture of a little Vsnea moss and a number of spiders' cocoons.The whole mass was firmly but rather loosely put together, the different particlesretaining their proper position more from the adhesion of their rough surfacesthan by reason of any special arrangement or interweaving. The general shapeof the structure necessarily conformed nearly with that of the space withinwhich it was placed, but a remarkable feature was presented by the dispositionof the lateral extremities. These were carried upward to a height of severalinches above the middle of the nest, ending in long narrow points or h5rns,which gave to the whole somewhat the shape of a well-filled crescent. In thecentre or lowest part of the sag thus formed was the depression for the receptionof the eggs?an exceedingly neat, cup-shaped hollow, bordered by strips of soft,flesh-colored bark and lined with feathers from Ducks and other wild birds.The whole was fastened to the concave inner surface of the bark-scale ratherthan to the tree itself, so that when the former was detached it readily cameofC with it. * * *
BROWN CREEPER 59With respect to their general plan of construction, all of the eight nests whichI have examined were essentially similar. Indeed, the uniform character of thenesting-sites chosen by the different pairs of birds was not a little remarkable.Thus, in every single instance that came under my observation, the nest wasplaced on a balsam fir, though spruce, birch, or elm stubs were often muchmore numerous, and frequently presented equally good accommodations. Again,in no instance did the tree resorted to retain more than three or four pieces ofbark, while oftentimes the scale that sheltered the nest was the only one thatremained. The height varied from 5 to 15 feet, but this particular was perhapssometimes determined more by necessity than by any individual preference, asI noticed that when several equally suitable bark-scales occurred on the sametree, the lowest was invariably the one taken. In one such case the nest wasso low that I could easily look into it by standing up in my boat. As before indi-cated, the size and shape of the different structures varied with that of thecavities in which they were placed. When the space between the bark and trunkwas very narrow, the foundation of sticks was entirely dispensed with, the nestbeing then entirely composed of bark. Of the five examples now before me, onlytwo are feather-lined, the remaining three being simply finished with shreds ofthe reddish inner fir-bark of a somewhat finer quality than those which make upthe outer part of the structure. The most striking feature of all is the pro-longation of the upper corners, already described. In one extreme specimenthese horns rise four inches above the central cup that contains the eggs. Theyare, perhaps, designed to act as stays or supports, as they are firmly attachedto the rough inner surface of the bark which sustains the nest.The experience of Dr. Brewer and Mr. Brewster proved satisfac-torily that creepers build their nests behind bits of loosened bark, yetthere remained a good record by Professor Aughey, who in 1865 hadfound a nest in a knothole. Brewster (loc. cit.) investigated thisrecord and explains it in this way
:
Were it not for Professor Aughey's testimony we might fairly be inclined tosuspect that all our earlier accounts of this Creeper's nesting were either foundedupon hearsay or were purely fictitious. But we have this gentleman's satis-factory assurance that in Nebraska the Creeper does sometimes nest in holes intrees. Being desirous of obtaining further particulars regarding the nest men-tioned by him in his paper on "The Nature of the Food of the Birds of Nebraska,"and referred to by Dr. Brewer in the April Bulletin, I wrote to Professor Augheyon the subject, and the following is an extract from his very courteous reply
:
"In reference to Certhia familiarls, it is certain that in Nebraska, where itsfavorite position for nesting under scales of loose bark is in some localities dif-ficult to obtain, it makes a nest in knot-holes. I have found two other nestsin such places,?one in June 1877, between Bellevue and Omaha, on the MissouriBluffs, in a box-elder tree ; another in June of the present season on Middle Creek,4 miles from Lincoln, also in a box-elder. I have also found several in theordinary positions where old cottonwoods or elms abounded. It is thereforemy conviction that this method of nesting in knot-holes was inaugurated be-cause of the scarcity of the ordinary positions. I could not find any tree nearby where a nesting-place under bark could have been obtained in these instancesof nesting in knot-holes."
' The records of Macoun and Macoun (1900) may perhaps be ac-counted for in the same way. They say: "Have taken several nestsat Ottawa, always in deserted woodpecker's holes."
60 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMA creeper's nest presents an odd appearance when it and the barkto which it adheres firmly are removed from the tree. In shape it islike a loosely hung hammock or a new moon, the horns built high upat the sides of the nest, which seems to hang suspended between them.The structure bears a striking resemblance to those little windrowsthat we see on a forest path after the passing of a summer showerwhen the flowing water has pushed along the loose twigs, leaves, andpine needles and has left them lying in long, curved heaps, crescent-shaped like the creeper's nest.The nest is apparently built entirely by the female bird, but hermate often brings in nesting material and delivers it to her. I quotefrom my notes (Winsor M. Tyler, 1914) taken as I watched a pairbuilding a nest in Lexington, Mass., in 1913
:
When we first came upon the pair, the female was making long flights from thenest. Slie brought in bits of bark and some fuzzy material (fern down orcaterpillar webbing). We saw her collect also bits of bark from nearby trees.Twice at least the male brought material and delivered it (bark or dead wood)to the female who was in the nest cavity. The female made half a dozen longflights, returning every 2 minutes. Then she flew eight times in the next 10minutes to a very small dead white pine a few yards away and returned eachtime with one or more fine twigs. Often after returning with a twig 6 incheslong, she had some difficulty in forcing it through the entrance hole. She waswise enough, however, to turn her head so that the twig might slip in endfirst. Once, when she brought in a beakful of fern down, the material keptcatching on the rough bark and tripping her up, but by bending her neck backwardshe was able to hold the stuff clear of the mark. In her trips to the little deadpine, the Creeper always aliglited on the slender trunk, but in order to reachthe terminal twigs she had to hop out on the smaller branches. Sometimes,when these were very small, she perched crosswise upon them ; often she crawledaround them,?her back to the earth. When perched, her tail hung straightdownward, like a Phoebe's or a Brown Thrasher's when he sings. She brokeoff the twigs by tugging at them while perched or while fluttering in theair * * *The use of both the fern down and the webbing is, I believe, to bind the twigstogether and to hold the nest to the bark, against which it rests. In the firstnest site, if it had not been for this adhesion, the nest would have fallen tothe ground of its own weight, for its base was unsupported. * * *The female flew to the nest with a bit of bark (2^2 X Vi inches) then pulledfrom the protruding base of the nest a piece of fuzz and took it into the cavity.Five minutes later she (or her mate) crept again to the base and pulled offa bit of bark which she carried within. The economical habit of using materialtwice (first for the foimdation and later for building the nest proper) is ap-parently a common practice. We saw it again and again.Verdi Burtch (MS.) points out that the extensive killing of treesfurnishes brown creepers with many sites suitable for nesting. Hesays : "In the very cold winter of 1903 or 1904, with water 2 to 3 feetdeep in Potter Swamp, New York, the ice froze to such a depth thathundreds of trees were killed. A few years later, the bark belowthe water line came off, and the bark higher up split and, curling in-
BROWN CREEPER 61ward, made ideal nesting sites for the creepers. This was the condi-tion in 1906 and 1907, and the creepers were quick to take advantageof it."A similar condition prevailed in eastern Massachusetts about 1913,following an invasion of gypsy moths.In addition to such fortuitous nesting sites as those mentioned above,there are other stations far to the south of the creeper's normal breed-ing range where the bird finds surroundings adapted to its nesting re-quirements. For example, Kennard and McKechnie (1905) foundseveral nests in inundated white cedar swamps near the town of Canton,Massachusetts, and Dr. Arthur P. Chadbourne (1905) found a nestcontaining young in a similar swamp in Plymouth County, Mass.He remarks : "The conditions which determine the distribution of theCreeper in this region, are apparently a very moist, humid atmosphere,dense evergreen growth, through which the sun penetrates with diffi-culty, and considerable extent of wild woodland which is not dis-turbed by man throughout the nesting season."Arthur Loveridge (MS.) found two deserted nests, each holdingthree eggs, behind the shutters of a cabin on an island in the BelgradeLakes, Maine.Eggs.?[Author's note : The brown creeper lays four to eight eggsto a set, most commonly five or six. They are usually ovate in shape,with variations toward short-ovate, or more often toward elliptical-ovate. The ground color is generally pure white but sometimescreamy white. They are usually more or less sparingly marked withsmall spots, fine dots, or mere pin points; the larger spots are oftenconcentrated in a ring about the larger end, in which case the restof the egg has only a few fine markings; some eggs are nearly im-maculate. Shades of reddish brown predominate in the markings,such as "hazel" or other bright browns, but darker browns, such as
"Kaiser brown" or "liver brown," are not rare. I have seen one un-usual set that was heavily marked with these darker browns in largeblotches three-sixteeftth of an inch long.The measurements of 40 eggs in the United States National Museumaverage 15.1 by 11.8 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 15.8 by 12.2, 15.5 by 12.7, and 13.7 by 10.7 millimeters.]Young.?The nestling creeper has not far to go to reach his nativebark, and in 13 or 14 days after hatching he is ready to undertake theshort journey. The following note tells of a brood that I (1914)watched on their first day after leaving the nest
:
The young birds left the Concord nest early on June 4 (possibly June 3).At 8 a. m., two were clinging, 30 feet from the ground, to the trunk of a livingwhite pine tree which stood not far from the nest. One or two more were onanother pine trunli. The little birds were extremely difficult to find by reasonof their small size, their distance from the ground, their inconspicuous color and
62 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
especially because each took a statiou in the dark shadow immediately belowa horizoutal limb. Here they remained motionless for many minutes. Later,two young birds, one following the other, moved upward by feeble hitches andperched or squatted close to the trunk in the right angle formed by the limb. Inhitching over the bark, they moved almost straight upward and whenever I sawthem as a silliouette against the sky, and could thus determine the point, they didnot use their tails for support. The shortness of the young Creeper's tails gaveto their bodies a rounded, uubird-like outline and, with their short, stubby billsof wide gape and their squatting position on the upright bark they suggestedtree-toads in no small degree. Like most young birds after they leave the nest,the fledgling Creepers were more noisy than they had been the day before.They announced their whereabouts to their parents with a note not previouslylieard?a high sibilant call, "tssssi," or sometimes clearly divided into twosyllables thus : ''ts-tssi." The voice was very sliglitly tremulous and, although thepitch and delivery of the notes were decidedly Creeper-like, they suggested toMr. Faxon and me a flock of Cedarbirds.William Brewster (1938) states that the young birds "when heldagainst the trunk of a tree instantly crept upwards using the shorttail precisely in the manner of the old bird." Dayton Stoner (1932)speaks of the young creepers thus
:
Below the nest, the bark clung flrmly to the tree, but above, it bulged out sothat it formed a canopy for the nest beneath which the young birds might havetaken their first lessons in climbing.As I stood viewing the situation in general and the young birds in particularfour of them climbed into this covered space and, as I attempted to capturethem, made a short flight into the surrounding vegetation. A little later I sawan adult feeding one of the youngsters clinging to the side of a tree. The youngone did fairly well in its first attempts at climbing in the open, but seemed tohave some difliculty in clinging to the smootli bark of the maples and moved abouton these trees until it came to a little ledge of bark where it appeared morecomfortable.Cordelia J. Stanwood (MS.) gstimates the incubation period asabout 11 or 12 days.Plumages.? [Author's note: The young nestling is sparsely cov-ered on feather tracts of the upper parts with dark gray down, whichlater adheres to the tips of the juvenal plumage. ^ This first plumageis much like that of the adult, but the colors are paler and duller andthe plumage is softer and looser; the streaks on the head and backare broader and less sharply defined and tinged brownish ; the rumpis paler russet, and the wing coverts are edged with pale buff; theunder parts are buffy white, flecked on the chin, throat, and sides withdusky.A partial postjuvenal molt, beginning early in August and involv-ing all the contour plumage, wing coverts, and tail, but not the restof the wings, produces a first winter plumage which is practically in-distinguishable from that of the adult. Dr. Dwight (1900) says ofthis plumage : "Similar to previous plumage. Above darker, therump much rustier, the crown and back with white shaft streaks,
BROWN CREEPER 63wing covert edgings whiter. Below, silky white, the crissum faintlycinnamon ; tail olive-brown on the inner webs, Isabella color externally,a faint barring discernible, the middle pair of rectrices more broadlyand less distinctly barred than in the juvenal plumage."Adults have a complete postnuptial molt in August. Fall birdsare usually darker, more suffused with buffy, especially on the flanksand under tail coverts, and the white wing markings are tinged withbuffy white. Spring birds are somewhat faded above and dingywhite below.]Food.?Speaking of the food of the brown creeper, W. L. McAtee(1926a) says:The bird must have a close and important relation with forest insects, butunfortunately studies have not j'et been made that disclose the details of itsfood habits. However, we know that it devours weevils, leaf beetles, flat-bugs,jumping plant lice, leaf hoppers, scale insects, eggs of katydids, ants, and othersmall hymenoptera, sawflies, moths, caterpillars, cocoons of the leaf skeleton-izers (Bucculatrix), pupae of the codling moth, spiders, and pseudoscorpions. Ittakes only a little vegetable food, chiefly mast. Most of the insects the BrownCreeper is known to feed upon are injurious to trees and we may safely reckonthis small but very close associate of trees as one of their good friends.Dayton Stoner ( 1932) remarks : "Most of the insects taken are highlydestructive; and many of them and their eggs, and immature stagesas well, are so small as to be overlooked by the majority of arborialbirds. That this bird is a valuable ally of the forester and horticul-turist cannot be doubted."Francis H. Allen sends us the following note : "Wlien feeding on theground or on hard snow, as it occasionally does, it hops with the legsfar apart and the body resting back on the tail, or apparently so.The bird in this rather pert attitude looks very different from thedemure and rather humdrum creeper we usually see on the tree-trunk."Behavior.?We think of the creeper as always climbing upward overthe bark in a straight or spiral course until, after reaching a fairheight on the trunk, he drops to the base of another tree to ascendit in like manner. This is his ordinary way of feeding, but he oftenvaries it. We may sometimes see him take a short hop backward to re-investigate a crevice in the bark, or take a hop sideways to broadenthe field of his research, and, as we have noted under "Nesting," a birdmay visit a slender branch and even perch on it, and he may also hitchalong the underside of a horizontal branch, his back to the ground.Dr. Arthur P. Chadbourne (1905) speaks of a bird making "a hori-zontal run sideways and most decidedly crablike," and A. Dawes Du-Bois (MS.) notes the action of a creeper thus: "He proceeded up thetree for a while, but soon began to search the branches, usually work-ing outward from the trunk to the tip, and then flying back to the baseof another branch. He seemed more at home on the under side of a
64 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMlimb than on top of it, for he went over the top only occasionally;evidently most of his food is to be found on the under side."O. A. Stevens, of Fargo, N. Dak., in a letter to Mr. Bent, describes thebehavior of creepers at his feeding station. He says : "From all ourobservations we feel that they are slow to change their habits. In theearly winter of 1941-42, three birds appeared in the tree near ourwindow shelf and repeatedly worked up the tree past suet, nuts, anddoughnuts where other birds were feeding, but rarely paid any atten-tion to the food. After a time they came to the window shelf and atethe chopped peanuts regularly. It was amusing to see them swallowpieces as large as a millet seed. Once I saw a creeper pound a largerpiece of suet against the tree.
"Dr. W. J. Breckenridge of Minnesota told me that the creepers
.were fond of peanut butter put in holes of a stick. I prepared such astick and hung it in the tree. The first results were disappointing.Once a bird sampled it and went on up the tree wiping his bill everyfew hops. A week or two later they were seen to visit it frequently,remaining for some little time. One day when I took it down, theylooked for it repeatedly. The tree stands some 10 feet from thewindow shelf. In coming to the shelf, the birds always work up thetree to the level of the shelf or higher, watch to see if the coast isclear, then drop as if to reach the side of the house below, but risingto alight on the shelf. They never come down to the shelf as mostbirds do. Frequently they eat a little snow from the tree ; occasionallythey walk out from the base of the tree on the ground. When theydrop to a lower part of the tree, they always seem to fall off theirperch and flutter, insectlike for a few moments."The brown creeper is not a shy bird as we meet it during its migra-tion ; it doubtless sees few men on its breeding grounds in the northernforests. Clarence M. Arnold (1908) relates the following instance ofthe bird's disregard of man
:
While walking along a wide wood-path I stopped to observe a mixed flock ofwinter birds in the trees nearby. There were Chickadees, Golden-crownedKinglets, a Downy Woodpecker and a Brown Creeper, the latter being the firstI had seen this season. For tbis reason, and also because this species is muchrarer than the others, I was watching it closely through my field glass, standingalmost motionless in the center of the path ; meanwhile, it flew to the base ofa chestnut tree about 50 feet from me, and hitched its way up the rough bark.It had reached the lowest branches, about 20 feet from the ground, whensuddenly it left the tree and darted straight at me, and, to my amazement,alighted on the left leg of my trousers, just above my shoe, in front, evidentlymistaking the black and gray color for the bark of a tree.Arthur C. Bent (MS.) gives another example of the fearlessnessof a bird on her nest. He says : "Hersey and I had been watching apair of creepers in a pine grove, mixed with a few other trees, partlyswampy. Today we found the nest 17 feet up under a loose slab of
BROWN CREEPER 65bark on a large dead white pine. The female bird could not be drivenoff the nest by rapping the tree or shaking the loose slab ; Hersey hadto poke her off."Mrs. A. L. Wheeler (1933) reports the roosting of creepers on theporch of her house. She says : "For the last two winters I have beenhaving some Brown Creepers clinging to the rough stucco in theentrance of our front door. Last winter there were two of them. Theycame about 4 o'clock, seldom later ; they would fly to the bottom, thenclimb to the top, and 'snuggle' close together in the corner. I put aprotection near, to keep the cold wind off them, but they would notcome near until I removed it. They paid no attention to personspassing through the door, although they were within easy reach."One winter afternoon at dusk I saw a creeper settle, evidently forthe night, about 6 feet from the ground on the rough bark of a bigwhite-ash tree. A cat was watching the bird and started to climb uptoward it. When I drove the cat away, the creeper moved farther upthe tree and settled again on the bark.Some years ago I spent many hours observing the breeding activi-ties of a pair of creepers. I append a quotation from my notes takenat the time (Winsor M. Tyler, 1914) :In watching a pair of Brown Creepers about their nest, whether they arebuilding, incubating their eggs, or feeding their young, one is soon impressed byan air of happiness and calm which pervades the active little birds. From thebehavior of many birds, one comes to associate the finding of a nest withanxiety expressed in various ways?with the nervous panic of the Warblers,the Robin's hysterical apprehension, the noisy complaint of the Crow and evenwith the polite uneasiness of the gentle Field Sparrow. The Brown Creeper,however, although doubtless observant, does not seem to look upon man as adanger ; he continues his work uninfluenced, I believe, by close scrutiny. Happyand calm, even under observation, the Creepers appear preoccupied in theirwork and the comradeship of a pair is very pretty to see. The male sliares withthe female her interest in the progress of the nest; even although he knowsnothing of nest building he collects material and offers it to his mate. Ever readyto assist, he feeds the female while she builds and while she is sitting and,after the young are hatched, he is no less industrious than she in caring fortheir needs.Francis Zirrer sends us the following note : "In April 1941, a farmernearby called my attention to some little brown birds that climb treescoming nightly to a hollow beam, at the end of his barn, that protrudesabout 2 yards from the building to within a few feet of several pinetrees, part of a considerable gi'ove of pines, into which the farm build-ings are set. According to him the birds come every night, enter theopening at the end of the beam, and remain there for the night. Witha long pole, and standing on a ladder, I was able to touch the beam,which has such small entrance that it is hardly noticeable from theground, 25 feet lower. It was quite dark, but upon the touch with thepole, the birds at once began to come out, some flying to the trees
66 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
nearby, others climbing around the beam or upon the walls of the barn.This, however, was enough, the birds were not molested further. Wewaited awhile, but it was too dark already, and we could not seewhether the birds returned. Next evening, however, we were thereearlier, and had the satisfaction to know that the disturbance of theprevious night was apparently forgotten; altogether 11 birds enteredthe beam, but it took quite a while, and much moving in and out, flyingback and forth, and climbing around the beam, nearby wall and treesbefore everybody was settled for the night."Frederick V. Hebard writes : ''This familiar creeper, so common inthe Thomasvi lie-Tallahassee region, is absent or extremely rare insoutheastern Georgia, except in times of extremely dry weather. Itsnearsightedness is nowhere better illustrated than in our tangledbranches and river swamps where, instead of dropping to the base of atree after having reached the top of a nearby one, it drops only to thepoint where the trunk emerges above the underbrush."Voice.?How seldom we should see the creeper if he did not soundhis little note ! Yet what a faint little note it is, the shortest, lightestpronunciation of the letters ts. He utters it as he climbs upward overthe bark and as he flits downward to the base of the next tree. Heoften gives also a longer, more characteristic note, which may be sug-gested by the letters si-i-i-it, a long, high, ringing note, but not loud,apparently broken into minute syllables so that it has a quaveringeffect. This note resembles the sound made by a small steel chain,which, held by the end and let fall, tinkles into a little heap. A thirdnote, more rarely heard, is a whistle, exquisitely pure, exceedinglyhigh, and, if it were not so tiny, piercingly sharp. It may be given asa single long whistle or in a series of three or four shorter whistles.This note is clearly not a modification of the song, for it is used in thewinter months and is not delivered with the cadence of the true song
;
it is, perhaps, a whistled form of the Bi-i-i-it note.The song of the creeper, heard rarely during migration, but com-monly on the bird's nesting grounds, is one of the gems of bird music.Most often a phrase of five notes, a dactyl and a trochee, it is a simple,modest little strain, but it is delivered with such delicacy and dainti-ness and in a tone so pure and sweet that when he sings we feel we arelistening to a delightful bit of verse.Aretas A. Saunders (MS.) says of it: "The song of the browncreeper is rather rarely heard. I hear it once in several yeai'S in thespring migration in April. On the breeding grounds the song evi-dently continues till the middle of July or later. It is short, weak, andvery high-pitched. The pitch varies from the A above the highestnote on the piano to the E above that. Most of the songs begin witha rather long note followed by one or two shorter notes that are a third
BROWN CREEPER 67lower in pitch, and these notes are repeated immediately, the six notesconstituting the entire song. This may be varied a little by droppingone or two of the short notes or varying the pitch, but a majority ofcreeper songs are built on this plan."Frank Bolles (1891) gives a word of praise to the creeper's song.He says : "While watching and admiring these gay survivors of thewinter [two butterflies and a moth], we heard a brown creeper sing.It was a rare treat. The song is singularly strong, full of meaningand charm, especially when the size of its tiny performer is remem-bered."Field TYiarhs.?The brown creeper is a tiny bird not much over 5inches long and nearly half of his length is taken up by his long tail.He is brown on the back, faintly streaked with pale gray, and beneathhe is pure white. His beak is long, needle-sharp, and bent downwardin a long curve. His wings, rather long for so small a bird, make himappear larger when he opens them in flight.Enemies.?^William Brewster (1936) describes the pursuit of acreeper by a northern shrike. He says
:
When I first saw him he was in hot pursuit of one of the Brown Creepers andboth birds were about over the middle of the river and scarce a yard apart. TheCreeper made straight for the big elm which stands at the eastern end of thebridge. When he reached it, the Shrike's bill was within 6 inches of his tail,but he nevertheless escaped, for an instant after the two birds doubled aroundbehind the trunk the Shrike rose to the topmost spray of the elm, where he satfor a minute or more, gazing intently downward, evidently watching for theCreeper. The latter, no doubt, had flattened himself against the bark afterthe usual practice of his kind when badly frightened and he had the nerve andgood sense to remain perfectly still for at least 10 minutes. My eyes were nobetter than the Shrike's, for it was in vain that I scanned the trunk over andover with the greatest care. Peeling sure, however, that the Creeper was reallythere, I waited patiently until at the end of the period just named he began run-ning up the trimk, starting at the very point where I had seen him disappear.It was one of the prettiest demonstrations of the effectiveness of protection col-oration that I have ever witnessed.Bradford Torrey (1885) tells thus of the defensive response of acreeper to the scream of a hawk
:
It was the last day of my visit, and I had just taken my farewell look at theenchanting prospect from the summit, when I heard the lisp of a brown creeper.This was the first of his kind that I had seen here, and I stopped immediatelyto watch him, in hopes he would sing. Creeper-like he tried one tree after anotherin quick succession, till at last, while he was exploring a dead spruce which hadtoppled half-way to the ground, a hawk screamed loudly overhead. Instantly thelittle creature flattened himself against the trunk, spreading his wings totheir very utmost and ducking his head until, though I had been all the whileeying his motions through a glass at the distance of only a few rods, it was almostimpossible to believe that yonder tiny brown fleck upon the bark was really a birdand not a lichen. He remained in this posture for perhaps a minute, only puttingup his head two or three times to peer cautiously round.
68 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFall mid winter.?The earliest brown creepers that come down intosouthern New England in fall find the woods almost silent and deserted.The jolly little summer residents have mostly begun their journeysouthward, and few migrants from the north have arrived thus early
?
only the vanguard of the blackpoll flight and the earliest juncos. It issometimes in the first half of September when the first creepers quietlyand almost unnoticed appear on their winter quarters, before the treeshave dropped their leaves, and when the first frost may be a monthaway, yet they bring us long in advance the first hint of winter. Dur-ing their migration, we often see the creepers on the trees borderingthe streets of our towns, in our city parks, almost anywhere where thereare large trees, but for the winter months they settle in woodlands orin the trees of large estates.Speaking of the creeper on Mount Mitchell, N. C. Thomas D. Bur-leigh (1941) says : "Unlike the preceding [red-breasted nuthatch] thisspecies, while it nests in the fir and spruce woods at the top of themountain, invariably retreats to the valleys in late fall and has neverbeen found above an altitude of approximately 4,500 feet during thewinter months."Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Argue had a very unusual experience onOctober 31, 1944, at Newburyport, Mass., near the seacoast. Mr. Arguewrites: "Walking toward Pine Island [a wooded area in the marsh]we observed 20 brown creepers. The birds were climbing up the sidesof buildings, up telephone poles, and fence posts as well as trees. Pro-ceeding to Pine Island we found 30 more creepers. Here they wereon trees and rocks and even on the ground. One bird alighted for amoment on my trouser leg."DISTRIBUTIONRange.?The greater part of the Northern Hemisphere ; in America,from southern Alaska and southern Canada to Nicaragua.Breeding range.?In America the breeding range of the browncreeper extends north to southern Alaska (Tyonek and the KenaiPeninsula) ; northern British Columbia (Flood Glacier, Nine MileMountain, and Hazelton) ; central Alberta (Glenevis and Camrose) ;southern Manitoba (Winnipeg) ; central Ontario (Kapuskasing,Cobalt, and Ottawa) ; southern Quebec (Rouge River Valley andGrand Greve) ; and Newfoundland (Steplienville). East to New-foundland ( Stephenville and Makinsons Grove) ; New Brunswick(Bathurst) ; Nova Scotia (Advocate) ; Massachusetts (Essex Countyand Mount Graylock) ; and in the mountains south to North Carolina(Grandfather Mountain) . South to western North Carolina (Grand-father Mountain) ; Tennessee (Mount Gu3'ot) ; northern Michigan(Beaver Islands) ; Minnesota (St. Paul) ; eastern Nebraska (Omaha
BROWN CREEPER 69and Lincoln) ; Wyoming (Wheatland) ; south through the EockyMountains of Colorado (Estes Park and Fort Garland) ; New Mexico(Taos and Cloudcroft) ; the highlands of Mexico (Arroyo del Buey,Durango, and Tizayuca, Morelos) ; Guatemala (Volcan de Fuego andTecpam) ; to Nicaragua (San Rafael del Norte) ; and southern Cali-fornia (Strawberry Valley and Mount Wilson). West to California(Strawberry Valley, Fort Tijon) ; principally in the mountains ofCalifornia (Yosemite Valley and Mount Shasta) ; Oregon (RogueRiver Valley and Portland) ; Washington (Mount Rainier and Bel-lingham) ; British Columbia (Queen Charlotte Islands) ; and Alaska(Tyonek).Winter range.?The winter range extends north to southeasternBritish Columbia (Comox, Chilliwack, and Okanagan Valley) ; NorthDakota (Grafton and Fargo) ; Minnesota (Minneapolis) ; Ontario(Ottawa) ; and Nova Scotia (Pictou) . From this line brown creepersare found in winter south through all the States to the Gulf coast,northern Mexico (Chihuahua) ; and southern California (Victorvilleand Whittier).The range as outlined refers to the entire species in America, whichis broken up into seven Check-list races with additional races residentin Mexico, Guatemala, and Nicaragua.The typical race {G. f. famiUaris) is confined to the Old World.The eastern brown creeper (6'. /. americana) occurs from the easternedge of the Plains, Manitoba to Nebraska eastward, south to Pennsyl-vania. The southern creeper ( C. f. nigrescens) is the bird of the south-ern Appalachians from West Virginia to North Carolina and Tennes-see. The Rocky Mountain creeper (C. f, montana) occurs from south-ern Alaska (Cook Inlet), central British Columbia, and in the RockyMountains south to Arizona and New Mexico. The Mexican creeper{C. f. albescens) ranges from southern Arizona south to Nayarit andZacatecas, Mexico. The Sierra creeper {G. f. selotes) is found in theCascades and Sierra Nevada from British Columbia and northernIdaho south to the San Jacinto Mountains of California. The Ne-vada creeper {G. f. leucosticta) is apparently confined to the Charles-ton and Sheep Ranges of southern Nevada. The California creeper{G. f. occidentalis) is found along the Pacific coast from Sitka, Alaska,to Monterey County, Calif.Spring migration.?Late dates of spring departure from the winterhome are: Florida?Pensacola, March 24. Georgia?Athens, April1. South Carolina?Spartanburg, April 17. North Carolina?Char-lotte, April 17. Virginia?^Lynchburg, April 15. District of Coluni'bia?Washington, April 24. Pennsylvania?Pittsburgh, May 8New York?New York, May 10. Massachusetts?Boston, May 16Arkansas?Tillar, April 4. Tennessee?Nashville, April 17. Ken-758066?48 6
70 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtncky?Danville, April 22. Missouri?Columbia, April 26. Illi-nois?Chicago, April 28. Indiana?Indianapolis, April 25. Ohio
?
Oberlin, May 9. Ontario?Toronto, May 24. Iowa?Sioux City,May 9. Wisconsin?Madison, May 10. Texas?Somerset, April 1.Oklahoma?Oklahoma City, March 18. Kansas?Onaga, April 28.Nebraska?Lincoln, May 8. South Dakota?Mellette, May 6. NorthDakota?Fargo, May 7.Early dates of spring arrival are : New York?Albany, March 16.Massachusetts?Boston, March 16. Vermont?Kutland, March 16.Maine?Ellsworth, March 19. New Brunswick?St. John, April 24.Quebec?Montreal, March 18. Illinois?Chicago, March 18. In-diana?Indianapolis, March 5. Ohio?Painesville, March 12. Michi-gan?Sault Ste. Marie, April 10. Ontario?Toronto, April 4. IowaSioux City, March 18. Wisconsin?Madison, March 27. MinnesotaMinneapoli.s, March 28. South Dakota?Yankton, March 18. NorthDakota?Fargo, March 29. Wyoming?Wheatland, April 1. Mon-tana?Great Falls, April 28. Manitoba?Winnipeg, April 17.Alberta?Glenevis, April 4,Fall migration.?Late dates of fall departure are : Alberta?Belve-dere, October 22. Manitoba?Aweme, October 22. Wyoming?Wheat-land, October 27. North Dakota?Fargo, November 6. South Da-l:ota?Faulkton, November 15. Minnesota?St. Paul, October 22.Wisconsin?Kacine, November 4. Michigan?Lansing, November 28.Ontario?Ottawa, October 25. Iowa?Keokuk, October 26. QuebecQuebec, November 23. New Brunswick?St. John, October 8. MainePortland, November 6. Vermont?St. Johnsbury, November 17.Massachusetts?Boston, November 20. New York?New York,November 14.Earl}^ dates of fall arrival are: North Dakota?Fargo, September29. South Dakota?Faulkton, September 18. Nebraska?Hastings,September 28. Kansa.s?Lawrence, October 1. Oklahoma?Norman,October 17. Texas?Commerce, October 30.Casual records.?A specimen was taken on Mount McKinley, Alaska.October 21, 1907; and there is a single breeding record for extremesoutheastern Missouri. In the Bermuda Islands a specimen was takenfrom a group of three or four seen on November 24, 1870.Egg dates.?California : 33 records, April 16 to July 8 ; 17 records,May 19 to June 11, indicating the height of the season.New York: 36 records. May 5 to July 18; 18 records, May 17 toMay 26.Ontario : 12 records. May 23 to June 11.Washington : 39 records, March 27 to July 15 ; 20 records, May 5to May 31.
SOUTHERN CREEPER 71CERTHIA FAMILIARIS NIGRESCENS BnrleighSOUTHERN CREEPERIn naming and describing this subspecies, Thomas D. Burleigh(1935) says that it is "similar to Certhia familiaris americana, butcrown and upper half of back distinctly darker, the prevailing colorbeing fuscous black rather than sepia ; primaries darker and approach-ing clove brown; tail more grayish (hair brown); russet of rumpdarker ; underparts grayer."He gives the distribution as follows : "Breeds in the Canadian Zoneof the southern xlppalachians from Pocahontas County, W. Va.(Cranberry Glades) , to the Great Smoky Mountains in western NorthCarolina and eastern Tennessee; winters at a lower altitude in thissame region."Burleigh says further: "This southern race of the brown creeperis easily distinguished in fresh winter plumage by the lack of brownon the crown and the upper half of the back. In worn breedingplumage this character is somewhat obscure, but the color of thetail, hair brown rather than pale brown as in Certhia familiarisaTnericana^ is readily diagnostic, as are the darker primaries. Breed-ing birds taken in June and July are so badly worn that accurate meas-urements could not be taken, but apparently there is no appreciabledifference in size in the two eastern races."This subsj)ecies is based on the study of 13 specimens taken in theabove-mentioned localities.CERTHIA FAMILIARIS MONTANA RidgwayROCKY MOUNTAIN CREEPERPlate 16HABITSThe Eocky Mountain creeper enjoys the widest distribution of anyof the w^estern races of the species. The 1931 Check-list states that it
"breeds in boreal zones from central Alaska (Mt. McKinley), centralBritish Columbia, and southern Alberta south in the Eocky Mountainsto Arizona and New Mexico." Its smnmer range is at high altitudesin the mountains in the coniferous forests. In New Mexico, accordingto Mrs. Bailey (1928), it breeds mainly at altitudes ranging from7,500 to 9,000 feet; after the breeding season the birds w-ere notedas high as 12,000 feet on Pecos Balcly ; but it evidently drifts down tomuch louver levels in fall and winter. Dr. Mearns (1890) found it nolower than 6,500 feet in the Arizona mountains, where he found it
"an abundant summer resident of the spruce, fir and aspen woods ofhigh altitude, ranging to the timber line; much less common in the
72 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMpines, to which it descends, however, in winter, when it is also occa-sionally seen in the cedars and pifions of the foot-hills, or in the de-ciduous timber along the streams in the valleys." In Colorado, W. C.Bradbury (1919) found it breeding at an altitude of nearly 11,000feet, almost up to timberline. Fred M. Packard writes to me fromEstes Park, Colo. : "Pairs of these birds are scattered throughout theconifer forests of the park, the principal nesting habitat being in theCanadian and Hudsonian Zones. Between August and early Octobera number descend into the Transition Zone, some reaching the plains.Their upward migration is in April."Nesting.?The nesting habits, and apparently all other habits of theEocky Mountain creeper, are similar to those of other races and neednot be repeated here. Mr. Bradbury (1919) gives the followingmeasurements of a nest that he found in Colorado: "The extremedimensions of the nest, including foundation, are : Top to bottom, 7inches ; width, 5 inches. While the nest itself was 3 inches deep and4 inches broad in one direction, the restrictions due to its location con-fined it to a breadth of IY2. inches in the other direction. In fact, solimited was the space that the bark itself comprised one side of thecup, the latter being II/2 by 2 inches at the rim and li/^ inches deep."Eggs.?The eggs of this creeper are indistinguishable from thoseof the other races. The measurements of 20 eggs average 15.9 by 12.3millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 17.0 by 12.5,16.5 by 13.0, 15.2 by 12.2, and 15.5 by 11.1 millimeters.Winter.?Frank L. Farley, of Camrose, Alberta, tells me that num-bers of these creepers spend the winter in the spruce woods on theBattle River, south of Camrose. He has never seen them foragingon any trees but spruces, nor has he ever seen them there in summer,and on only one or two occasions as migrants.CERTHIA FAMILIARIS ALBESCENS BerlepschMEXICAN CREEPERPlate 17HABITSThis is a Mexican subspecies that extends its range into the UnitedStates for only a short distance into southern Arizona, with one record,probably of a straggler, into extreme southwestern New Mexico.We found the Mexican creeper fairly common in the pine forests ofthe Huachuca Mountains, above 8,000 feet and near the summits. Thekeen ears of my companion, Frank C. Willard, frequently heard thefaint wiry notes of the birds, but I could not hear them and they werenot easy to see, except when they flew from one tree to another. Numer-ous dead pines in this region offered attractive nesting sites.This subspecies differs from the other North American races in be-
SIERRA CREEPER 73ing darker above and pale brownish gray below, white only on thechin and throat, and with a chestnut, rather than a tawny, rump.Nesting.?On more than one occasion we spent considerable timefollowing a Mexican creeper about among the dead and living pinesnear the summit of the Huachuca Mountains, for we knew that eventu-ally the male would call the female off the nest to feed her. Twicethe male came near what proved to be the nesting tree, and twice wesaw him feed the female ; but it was not until the second time that wewere able to trace her path back to the nest. She went into a littlehole in a big piece of loose bark that hung under a branch, about 35feet from the ground and near the top of a scraggly dead pine.The foundation of the nest, which was firmly attached to the bark,consisted of dry pine needles and a few fine twigs; the cup of thenest was well made of fine strips of inner bark and it was profuselylined with feathers. Mr. Willard made the difficult climb to this nest(pi. 17) and secured a set of five fresh eggs on May 15, 1922.Another set of five eggs was taken, in the same locality on May30, from a similar nest placed behind a big slab of loose bark on alarge dead pine, but only 6 feet above the ground.Eggs.?I have seen as many as six eggs and as few as four in setsof the Mexican creeper. These are similar to the eggs of othercreepers, though what few eggs I have seen are of the finely speckledtype. The measurements of 26 eggs average 15.3 by 11.8 millimeters;the eggs showing the four extremes measure 16.4 by 11.4, 14.1 by 12.2,13.9 by 11.4, and 14.7 by 10.9 millimeters.Young.?Referring to the Huachuca Mountains, Swarth (1904b)writes : "About the middle of July young birds began to appear, andthey seemed more abundant at this time than at any other. As withmany other species breeding in the higher parts of the range, a down-ward movement began about this time, and though never descendingto the foothills, in the late summer Creepers were found scattered allthrough the upper part of the oak belt. The juveniles seem to beattended by their parents for a long time, for up to the first week inSeptember, when young and old were practically indistinguishablein size and general appearance, the families still clung together, andthe old birds were seen continually feeding their offspring."This creeper seems to be only a summer resident in Arizona.CERTHIA FAMILIARIS ZELOTES OsgoodSIERRA CREEPERPlate 18HABITSDr. Wilfred H. Osgood (1901) described this form from specimenscollected in the southern Cascade Mountains of Oregon and the Sierra
74 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMNevada of California, but its range has since been extended north-ward to southern British Columbia and northern Idaho, and south-ward to the San Jacinto Mountains of California.The characters given by the describer are: "Similar to Certhia f.OGcidentalis but colors more dusky and less rufescent ; rump decidedlycontrasted with rest of upper parts ; similar to Certhia f. montana butmuch darker; light centers of feathers on head and back much re-duced." In this race, the rump and upper tail coverts are between
"chestnut" and "hazel," whereas in montana these parts are "cinna-mon-rufous." In OGcidentalis the color of the rump blends into thatof the back, while in selotes and montana the colors of these parts aresharply contrasted. Dr. Osgood says further: "This subspecies hasgenerally been included under the name occidentalis but it seems tobe more similar to montana and its characters might be consideredintermediate between those of these two. They are perfectly constantthroughout its range, however, so that the form is easily recognizable."In the Lassen Peak region in summer Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale(1930) found the Sierra creeper above 3,300 feet, where it breeds."The range of situations through which the brown creeper feeds isindicated by the following list of trees, on the trunks or limbs of whichindividuals were observed : valley oak, live oak, blue oak, digger pine,yellow pine, white fir, incense cedar, lodgepole pine. Deciduous treespredominate within the winter range of the creeper, while coniferoustrees predominate in the territory occupied in summer."In the San Bernardino Mountains, in southern California, Dr.Grinnell (1907) found the Sierra creeper more numerous than hehad ever seen it elsewhere. "While observed from an altitude of5,600 feet in the Santa Ana Canyon to as high as 9,500 feet, aboveDry Lake, on the north base of San Gorgonio Peak, yet the creeperswere most abundantly represented in the canyons from 6,000 to 7,500feet. This belt of abundance was also the belt in the TransitionZone where the incense cedar {Lihocedrus decurrens) is conspicu-ously represented."Nesting.?Keferring to his experience in the San Bernardinos, Dr.Grinnell (1907) writes:Although the majority of the nests found were on cedar trunks, one wason a Jeffrey pine, and at least five were on silver firs. In the latter casesthe trees were dead and rotting, for it was only on dead trees that the barkhad become loosened and separated enough from the trunk to afford the nar-row sheltered spaces sought by the creepers for nesting sites. But the hugeliving cedar trunks furnished the ideal situations. For the bark on theseis longitudinally ridged and fibrous, and it frequently becomes split into innerand outer layers, the latter hanging in broad loose strips. The narrow spacesbehind these necessitate a very compressed style of nest. A typical nest closelystudied by me may be described as follows
:
The material employed externally was cedar bark strips one-eighth to one-
SIERRA CREEPER 75half inch in width. This material had been deposited behind the loosenedbark until it packed tightly enough to afford support for the nest proper. Thebark strips extended down fully a foot in the cavity, and some of thelnprotruded thru the vertical slit which served the birds as an entrance.,The main mass of the nest consisted of shredded weathered, inner bark stripsof the willow, felted finest internally, where admixed with a few smalldown-feathers. This nest proper was 6 inches wide in the direction permittedby the space, and only 1% inches across the narrow way. The nest-cavity was1% by 21/4 inches, so that the sitting parent probably always occupied one positiondiametrically. * * *Myself and companions examined fully 30 nests, easily discovered after weonce learned hew to find them, and of these I should judge the average heightto have been 6 feet. In other words the majority could be at least touchedby the hand as we stood on the ground. One nest was only 3 feet aboveground.Nests have been reported from other localities in similar situations,behind loose strips of bark on cedars and pines, which are the charac-teristic nesting sites of the species. Emerson A. Stoner (1938) , how-ever, reports a decided departure from the usual rule. He found anest, in Solano Coimty, Calif., in "the end of a badly decayed laurelstub, 4 feet high and 5 inches in diameter. * * * The nest wasopen to the sky in the hollow tip of the decayed stub about 6 inchesdown in the hole, the inside measurement of the cavity being ap-proximately 3 inches in diameter. The nest was of fine, thread-likebark strips, matted with feathers and decaying wood dust. I recog-nized one of the feathers as that of a Steller Jay, and several werefrom a Horned Owl. The nesting stub was so badly decayed thatit would have snapped off with very little pressure."Eggs.?As a rule, the eggs of all the western subspecies of the browncreeper are similar in number, shape, and coloration to those of theeastern race. Dr. Grinnell (1907) describes two sets of eggs, nine inall, taken in the San Bernardino Mountains, as follows : "The ground-color of the eggs is pure white. The markings are elongated in shapelengthwise of the egg. The brightest markings are burnt sienna, thetint varying from this towards vinaceous as the depth of the markingsin the shell substance increases. The darkest markings average 1millimeter in diameter, while the vinaceous ones vary down to merepoints. The markings are most crowded around the large end ofthe egg-shells, and radiate from this pole in lesser numbers towardsthe opposite pole."The measurements of 40 eggs average 15.1 by 11.4 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 16.1 by 12.2, 14.7 by 12J2,14.0 by 10.9, and 15.0 by 10.0 millimeters.Young.?Irene G. Wheelock (1904) writes:Only 9 [?] days are required to hatch the small eggs, and the naked nestlingssquirm and wriggle like so many pink mice in the cosy nest. They are slowin feathering, not being fully covered until 15 days old, and even then the down
76 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMshows through the feathers in hair-like patches. According to the best of myobservations with a powerful field glass, they are fed by regurgitation until 4days old. After that a visible supply of insect food is given them. Their tirstjourney from home is a creeping about on the bark of the nest tree, to whichthey cling desperately, aided by their sharp little tails. Instinctively they pickat every crevice in the bark, and soon become so business-like about it that theyare quite independent of the adults and of each other.The plumage changes, food, behavior, and voice of the Sierracreeper are all, apparently, similar to those of the other westernsubspecies and not very different from those of the eastern race.Winter.?Although permanently resident throughout)* the year inthe Transition Zone of the mountains, the Sierra creeper to someextent wanders down into the foothills and into somewhat differentenvironments in winter. In the Lassen Peak region, Grinnell, Dixon,and Linsdale (1930) found it "present in winter on the western slopedown to the lowest altitudes. * * * Although seen usually inrather thick woods, creepers sometimes were found, as at 7 miles eastof Red Bluff on December 30, 1927, on the trunks of small, far-separated blue oaks. In winter single creepers were sometimes seenmoving along with flocks of feeding bush-tits and kinglets."John G. Tyler (1913) writes: "The winter of 1910-11 was remark-able for the number of unusual visitants among our avian friends,that appeared in the vicinity of Fresno. By no means the least inter-esting of these were the little creepers, which occurred quite nmner-ously in the willow trees that border some of the larger ditches, anddoubtless elsewhere as well."CERTHIA FAMILLA.RIS OCCIDENTALIS RidgwayCALIFORNIA CREEPERHABITSThe California creeper occupies the long coastal strip from Sitka,Alaska, to Monterey County, Calif., living in the Canadian andTransition Zones. Whereas the other western races of the browncreeper are mountain birds, during the breeding season at least, thiscoastal race seems to live and breed at much lower levels, even almostdown to sea level. In California it breeds in the great redwood forests,and from there down as far as the Point Lobos Reserve, where Grinnelland Linsdale (1936) found it nesting in the pines. There "a slightpreference was shown for the thicker stands of trees, especially wherethere were old trunks, but this bird followed other species even outamong scattered young trees; probably the whole area of pines wascovered."D. E. Brown showed me some of his favorite collecting groundsnear South Tacoma, Wash., in which the California creeper was breed-ing quite commonly, together with several other interesting birds
CALIFORNIA CREEPER 77
such as Oregon and chestnut-backed chickadees, western golden-crowned kinglets, and Audubon's warblers. It was a large tract ofsmooth, level, prairielike country that supported a fine open growthof large cedars, two or three species of firs, and a few scattering oaks.Ridgway (1904) called this the tawny creeper, an appropriate name,also used by others. He says that it is "similar to G. f. zelotes, butbrowner and more suffused with tawny above; wing-markings morepronouncedly buff; under parts more buffy (about as in G. f.americana) ."Nesting.?In the locality referred to above, near South Tacoma,Mr. Brown showed me a new nest of the California creeper, which hehad found building ; it was not over 3 feet from the gromid, under apiece of hanging bark on a small, dead oak. This is the locality inwhich J. H. Bowles tried his interesting and successful experimentof providing artificial nesting sites for these birds. As he (1922) says,he "selected trees with very smooth bark, or else cut the bark downsmooth, and nailed against them bark shelters 15 inches or more inlength, and 3 or 4 inches in width, leaving a space inside of about 3inches between the bark and the tree. This inside space will, of course,be tapering towards the bottom, but creepers require a considerabledepth for their nests, which are started by a large foundation oftwigs, on top of which is built the nestcup of soft bark, feathers, etc."Prof. Gordon D. Alcorn (MS.) adds the following specifications:
"This bark nailed at a convenient height against a vertical tree wasfurnished with a leaning bark roof and bark floor. With a pocketknife we carved an entrance on each side immediately beneath theroof. The creepers apparently did not care whether the site wasnatural or not, but they did appear to be rather particular about theentrances. They demanded two. If but one was present, the birdsrejected our offering."Dawson (1923) says that "from a line of, say, 35 or 40 traps hegathers an annual vintage of 5 or 6 sets of creepers' eggs. It is onlyfair to add that the birds profit in the long run by this arrangementfor they are allowed to raise second broods undisturbed throughoutan area which offers no other shelter."Mr. Bowles writes elsewhere (1908) :Nest building commences about the third week in April, either an oak or a firbeing selected for the pui-pose. The only exception I have ever known to thiswas one bird that I had watched until it disappeared under a strip of bark fully60 feet up in a giant cedar. * * * The nest is placed, as a rule, from 2 to 20feet above the ground, tho tbe majority that I have seen were under 10 feet.* * * In its composition the nest has a groundwork of twigs, the size of whichdepends entirely on the dimensions of the space between the bark and the maintrunk of the tree. Sometimes only a scant handful is sufficient, while in onenest the twigs would have filled a quart measure to overflowing. Slender deadfir twigs, from 4 to 8 inches long, are almost invariably used, and this must fre-
78 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMquently be a most arduous piece of business. Twigs have to be thrust into thecrevice until the first dozen or so lodge firmly, then the rest is easy. In everynest quite a little mound of twigs is found on the ground below, showing howpersevering the little architects must have been in the face of repeated failure.Probably they consider such twigs as unsuitable; at any rate it never seems tooccur to them to pick up a twig when once it has fallen. Scattered amongst thisnetwork of twigs is always a little green moss and a considerable amount ofdown taken fi-om ferns, willows and cotton-woods. What purpose these serve,beyond ornamentation, must be known only to the birds themselves. On top,and firmly embedded, is the egg cup of the nest, which is composed of a thickfelting of fine strips from the inner bark of the cedar, with occasionally a fewfeathers.Dawson (1910) tells of a nest that contained, in the cup alone,
"cowhair (red and black and white), feathers, horsehair, moss, finebark, macerated weed-stems, chips, fir needles, bits of white cloth,ravelings, string, cocoons, spider-egg cases, catkins, moth-wings, andvegetable fiber." This was a very unusual collection of material.S. F. Rathbun sends me the following very good description of anest of the California creeper, found near Tacoma, Wash., on June 2,1912 : "The base of the nest was entirely of bits of bark and rottenwood, this being merely a mass of material lying at the bottom of thespace behind the bark. On this was very uniformly placed dry hemlockand fir twigs, these being of a length that conformed perfectly to thespaces remaining at each side of the nest proper, many of these twigsbeing bent to accomplish this ; generally their ends projected upwardwith the tips curving somewhat beneath; and among these twigs weremany flat, thin pieces of inner fir bark and a little rotten wood. Whatmay be called the nest proper was entirely of plant fibres of a grayishcolor, finely shredded and very soft, this having the appearance ofwool, as it was very elastic ; and this material was firmly bound on itsinner surface by a few horsehairs. It was not carelessly built in anyway, but was neatly and carefully put together, and, unlike some othersof its kind, substantially built."Eggs.?Creepers' eggs are all about alike and show similar varia-tions. Those of this subspecies are no exception to the rule. Themeasurements of 40 eggs of this race average 15.5 by 11.9 millimeters;the eggs showing the four extremes measure 16.7 by 12.4, 16.2 by 12.5,14.0 by 11.2, and 14.6 by 11.1 millimeters.Food.?Professor Beal (1907) writes: "Only seven stomachs of theCalifornia creeper were available for examination, but they confirm thegood opinion observers have formed of the habits of this bird. Likethe titmice and nuthatches, the creeper is an indefatigable forager onthe trunks and branches of trees, and the food it obtains there is of thesame nature?that is, small beetles (many of them weevils), wasps,ants, bugs, caterpillars, and a few spiders."Of the seven stomachs examined, only one contained vegetable food,
NEVADA CREEPER 79and this had only 19 percent of seed, too much digested for identi-fication."Grinnell and Linsdale (1936) saw one "fly out 12 to 15 inches andcatch a flying insect."Winter.?All through the winter, California creepers wander about,mostly in pairs or singly, but often associated with the merry littlebands of chickadees, titmice, nuthatches, and kinglets. But they al-ways seem absorbed in their own affairs, diligently searching for theirfood on the tree trunks ; their association with other species is probablydue to a community of interest rather than to a desire for company,for creepers are not especially sociable.CERTHIA FAMILIARIS LEUCOSTICTA van RossemNEVADA CREEPERIn naming and describing this local race, Mr. van Kossem (1931)says: "Among the North American races of Gerthia famiUaris thisis the palest and grayest. Dorsally the coloration resembles, in theabsence of brown tones, Gerthia famiUaris alhesceiis Berlepsch, butis much paler and the streaks are pure white instead of pale gi*ay.Ventrally leucostiota is clear pure white, tinged on the flanks withpale gray and on the under l^il coverts with pale clay color.Van Kossem gives the range as "Transition and Alpine Zones inthe Sheep and Charleston Mountains, Clark County, Nevada.""The five specimens," he says, "on which the new form is basedare uniform in characters and bear little resemblance to GerthiafamiUaris zelotes Osgood of the Sierra Nevada, or to Gerthia famil-iaris montana Ridgway of the Rocky Mountains, with good series ofboth of which races they have been compared. In the relative amountof white on the dorsal surface there is close agreement betweenleuGOsticta and montana., but while in montana light brown tonesprevail, leucosticta is ashy and practically colorless dorsally except onthe rump." Family CHAMAEIDAE : Wren-titsCHAMAEA FASCIATA PHAEA OsgoodCOAST WREN-TITHABITSThe coast wren-tit is the northern race of this California species.It occupies the humid Transition Zone on the Pacific coast of Oregon,from the Columbia River southward to the vicinity of the northernboundary of California. Like many other races of that humid coaststrip, it is the darkest race of the species. Ridgway (1904) calls itthe dusky wren-tit and describes it as similar to the ruddy wren-tit,
80 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMits nearest neighbor on the south, "but still darker, the back, etc., deepsepia brown, the pileum and hindneck nearly clove brown, the generalcolor of under parts deep vinaceous-cinnamon or fawn color, withstreaks on throat and chest broader (those on throat nearly black)."Evidently the colors of the different races of this species become pro-gressively darker and richer as the range extends northward.Bernard J. Bretherton (Woodcock, 1902) says: "This species isonly met with on a strip of land lying directly along the ocean. Itsrange is inseparable from the Manzanita bush, and, as far as I know,Yaquina Bay is the limit of its northern range, and it is not foundanywhere in our state east of the Coast Range."Dr. Mary M. Erickson (1938) has contributed such a full and inter-esting life history of the type race, Chaniaea fasciata fasciata^ thatthere is practically nothing to be added on the habits of this sub-species and very little on the habits of the other races.There are four nests of this wren-tit, with sets of four or three eggseach, in the Thayer collection in Cambridge. One was placed in amaple bush, one in a salmonberry bush, one in a huckleberry, and onein a myrtle bush. They are all neat and compactly woven baskets,deeply hollowed and with the rims curved inward at the top. Theyare made of a variety of plant fibers, w^ed stalks, and weed blossoms,bound together with strips of grapevine bark, fine grasses, cattle hair,and spider webs; the lining consists of still finer grass and muchhorsehair or cowhair. One nest has considerable green moss workedinto the rim. Externally they measure about 3 inches in height andabout the same in diameter; the inner cavity is about 2 inches indiameter at the top and about ly^ inches in depth.The eggs are indistinguishable from those of the other races of thespecies. They vary in shape from ovate to short-ovate and have onlya slight gloss. The color varies from "pale glaucous blue" to bluishwhite, and they are immaculate. The measurements of 24 eggs average18.6 by 14.1 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure21.4 by 14.0, 17.8 by 14.7, 17.4 by 14.3, and 17.8 by 13.5 millimeters.CHAMAEA FASCIATA RUFULA RidgwayRUDDY WREN-TITHABITSFarther south along the coast of California, from Del Norte Countysouth to Santa Cruz County, in the humid coast strip, is the range ofthe ruddy wren-tit. This race is not so dark as the coast wren-tit, butit is darker and more richly colored than the type race, Gambel'swren-tit, of the San Francisco Bay region. Ridgway (1904) char-acterizes it as "similar to C. f. fasciata^ but more richly colored, thegeneral color of under parts deep pinkish cinnamon or dull vinaceous-
GAMBEL'S WREN-TIT 81cinnamon, the upper parts darker and browner (back, rump, andupper tail-coverts bistre or sepia) ."Apparently what has been written about the habits of the neighbor-ing type race would apply equally well, in most respects at least, to thesubspecies. I can find nothing in the literature to indicate anythingpeculiar in its habits. Its rich coloring is probably due to its humidcoast habitat.There are two sets of eggs with nests of this wren-tit in the Thayercollection in Cambridge. One nest, containing three eggs, was placedagainst the trunk of a fir tree among some azaleas, at Eureka, Calif.The other nest, taken at Sonoma on May 17, 1895, contained fiveeggs ; this nest is similar to nests of the coast wren-tit but is somewhatless bulky and made of finer materials, with many spider nests on theexterior, and lined with very fine grass and hair; it measures 2^^inches in height and 3 inches in diameter, externally ; the inner cavityis 2 inches in diameter and 1% inches in depth.The eggs are indistinguishable from those of the other wren-tits.The measurements of 35 eggs average 18.3 by 14.3 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 21.0 by 14.8, 19.9 by 15.0,16.6 by 14.3, and 18.4 by 13.8 millimeters.CHAMAEA FASCIATA FASCIATA (Gambel)GAMBEL'S WREN-TIT^ Plates 19-21Contributed by Mary M. Erickson *HABITSThe wren-tit is a bird that many do not have an opportunity to know,since it represents a monotypic family and its range is restricted to anarrow belt along the Pacific coast from south of the Columbia Riverdown into Baja California. It is principally a bird of the wind-sweptbrushland of the immediate coast at the northern end of its range, butin California it is found everywhere west of the Sierras in the extensivechaparral belt or in the brushy margins of the forests and streams.Even in the area in which it occurs it is better known by its voice thanby its appearance. Casual visitors to the chaparral ask what birdmakes the loud-ringing call that may come from the distant ridge orwith surprising suddenness from within the nearby bushes. But evenif one knows it is nearby it is not easy to see this dweller of the brush-land, for it rarely leaves the endless expanse of twigs within the leafycrown to come into the open at the top or to the ground below. If onehas the time and patience to wait nearby, its own curiosity will oftenbring it within view. With practice one can glimpse them, but it isnever easy to see them clearly or follow them for any distance.
* Derived largely from Erickson, "Territory, Annual Cycle, and Numbers in a Populationof Wren-tits," 1938.
82 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe subspecies under consideration, which lives along the coast fromSan Francisco Bay south to southern Monterey County, I watchedintensively for four years. Most of the work was done in a small can-yon containing 16.7 acres of brush near Berkeley, Calif. In this canyonnearly all the wren-tits were banded and marked so that they could berecognized as individuals.Spring.?The wren-tit is classified as a permanent resident, and thisresidency is of the most restricted sort. Individuals probably rarelygo more than a few miles from the place of their birth. Adults thathave once nested spend most of the remainder of their lives on the halfto two and a half acres of brushland used during the first nesting. Inspring, then, the wrentit population is essentially static. Pairs areestablished on breeding territories, many of them with the same mateon essentially the same territory they have held a year or more. Indi-viduals that have died have been replaced by a male accepting a newmate from among the young-of-the-year or a widowed female joininga bereaved male or a young male establishing himself. All suitableground is held by one pair or another. A few individuals, either un-able to secure a territory or mate, or for some reason not ready to doso at the normal time, wander through the territories of establishedindividuals and are driven from one to another by them. However,vacancies that may occur are quickly filled from the ranks of thesewanderers.The activities of the pair at this time, as they are all the year exceptduring the breeding season, are concerned with finding food for them-selves and defending their territory. The pair are constantly togetheras they work through their segment of the limitless chaparral huntingfor food. They keep in touch with each other by frequent calls. Themale often pauses to sing, and echoing calls are given by other males.If a jay perches nearby, they scold it. Occasionally they pause torest or preen. If their movements bring them to the margin of theirhome area or territory, they usually turn back and continue the end-less search for food. If they continue until they reach the extremelimit of their territory or go into the margin of the adjoining one,they are invariably met by the owners of this area and a boundarydispute occurs. The fighting that takes place is never prolonged orviolent, and the infringing pair soon retreat to their own area andboth pairs continue to forage. Rarely, an individual seeking to es-tablish itself may invade the territory and is persistently harrassedby the owner as long as it remains, or possibly, if the territory isunusually large, the owner will relinquish part of it to the newcomer.Oourtshi'p.?Courtship activities of a pair so constantly hidden arenot easily observed. Pairs seemingly are originally formed by a fe-
GAMBEL'S WREN-TIT 83male joining a male that has, or is establishing himself on, a territory.Two birds of the year, which I believe are a male and a female, areoften seen together during fall and winter, but these seem to be transi-tory attachments, and the female will leave such a male to join anestablished one.I once observed what appeared to be the establishment of a maleon a territory and his acquisition of a mate. In a patch of brushthat had not been occupied on the previous days, a young banded malewas observed in the morning between 7 :30 and 9 o'clock. During thistime he went from the upper end to the lower and back to the upper,and except for a few brief intervals sang on an average of 5 times aminute?approximately 450 utterances. Wlien he was at the top thesecond time, his calls were low and of poor carrying quality, but herea second wrentit was heard and glimpsed for the first time. The twomoved down the the slope again. I heard no sounds except a singlesong and a lirTT answer, but low notes would not have reached me.About 9 :30 the pair were lost in the lower part of the territory. At11 :30 I looked for them again and found them behaving as any es-tablished pair would behave.What actions take place as the pair first meet were never seen inthe field. When a female was put into a cage containing two malesand a female, the subsequent rapid movements of the four birds wereexceedingly difficult to follow. The actions of the original femalewere mainly hostile. Lightning advances and retreats occurred be-tween the two males and the new female, accompanied by a variety ofsoft musical and harsh notes as well as those common during disputes.The frequency of these chases decreased markedly by the end of theday, and soon the new female acted as the typical mate of one of themales.Most of the time there is little activity to indicate that two birdsare mates except their constant companionship. They forage to-gether, they frequently preen each other, they rest on the same perchduring the day, and they roost together at night. Their interest ineach other moves toward a peak, as shown by sexual flight and specialversions of the song as they build the nest, and it reaches its climaxin coition on the days the nest is lined. In sexual flight the femalecontinually hops or flies away from the male as he approaches, so thata rapid chase takes place. Posturing was never observed, but it mayoccur, since it would be difficult to observe it.Once mated, the pair remain together as long as both are alive. Ofthe pairs I knew, five existed at least three years and a sixth for 2i^years. Six pairs were together for 2 years and may have existed priorto or after my knowledge of them. Only five pairs were known to havelasted only 1 year. Wlien a pair was broken up, one or both members
84 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of it disappeared completely and presumably must have been killed,thougli this was only definitely known to be true in 1 of IT cases.Nesting.?The nest is placed in one of the bushes that make up thechaparral home of the species. It is usually not in a continuous densemass of brush, but at its margin where a rock outcrop, less in heightthan the brush, or a trail or clearing makes a break ; or if the chaparralis sparse the nest may be in any small bushy plant. I have found nestsin coyotebush {BacchaHs pilularis), artemisia, hazelnut, stick mon-keyflower, and poison oak. Mailliard (1902) and A. H. Miller (MS.)have found them in live oaks, and Kay (1909) in an alder. In chapar-ral where other plants dominate, other shrubs are used.From the nature of the habitat, the height of the nest above groundusually cannot be great and averages 18 to 24 inches. The lowest thatI found was 12 inches, the highest 42 inches. The nests in trees men-tioned above were 12 and 15 feet up.Support, both under and at the sides of the nest, is usually found ina group of horizontal or vertical twigs built into or lashed to the nest.Occasionally a crotch of larger limbs is used. The nest is placed sothat leafy twigs screen it from view on all sides.The nest, a compact cup, is built by both members of the pair. Itis begun by stretching a cobweb network between the twigs that areto form the support. Then coarse bark fibers are introduced, spar-ingly at first, until a saucerlike platform from y2 inch to 1^/^ inchesthick and about 4 inches in diameter is formed. Fine bark strips arethen placed on the outer rim until a deep cup is formed. Throughoutthe construction of the platform and cup, masses of cobweb arestretched over and interwoven with the bark fiber to bind it togetherand hold it in place. Cobweb is also stretched over the rim until itbecomes smooth and firm. Finally a lining of fine round fibers isinserted in the cup, and tiny bits of lichen may be, though are notalways, fastened to the outside. The type of bark used dependslargely on the type of brush nearby. I have seen them strip barkfrom the dead or weathered branches of old-man sage, lupine, snow-berry, thimbleberry, ninebark, baccharis or coyotebush, cow parsnip,and elderberry. The lining was often taken from the outer coatof the bulb of the soap plant, but fine grasses or hair are also used.Abandoned nests are a common source of material for later nests. Thediificulty of finding nests makes the case uncertain, but I believe onlyone nest is worked on at a time, though a nest may be left incompleteand another begun.The nest, though it may be the center of the birds activity for up-ward of a month, is not necessarily near the center of the territory.Of 47 nests that I observed, 60 percent were near the margin ratherthan the center. Successive nests of the same year or succeeding years
GAMBEL'S WREN-TIT 85may be near together or widely separated. The male often singswithin 25 feet or less of the nest as he goes to it or leaves, but withequal frequency from other parts of the territory.Eggs.?The number of eggs in a set is usually four, but sets ofthree are not infrequent and sets of five occur occasionally. There issome evidence that the smaller sets are laid by the younger females orearly in the season and the larger sets by older females or late in theseason. The eggs are usually laid early in the morning on successivedays. They are oval and of a uniform pale greenish blue. There areno markings of any kind and the surface is dull. A single brood ofyoung is reared each year, but if the eggs or nestlings are destroyed,the birds will lay as many as four or five sets during the nestingseason, which at Berkeley lasts from March to July.[Author's note: The measurements of 40 eggs average 18.1 by14.5 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 19.6 by16.0, 16.3 by 14.2, and 17.8 by 12,7 millimeters.]Incubation.?The incubation period was 16 days for three sets ofeggs that I observed and was probably the same in two other cases.Newberry (1916), however, observed a nest in which the eggs hatchedin 15 days. The adults spend at least some time on the nest after thesecond egg is laid, but in all cases that I observed, continuous incuba-tion began on the day the next-to-the-last ^gg is laid; hence usuallyon the day the third is laid. In the nest watched by Newberry a lapseof 3 days occurred between laying and the beginning of incubation.During the days of incubation the activities of the pair follow a setpattern. The female incubates at night. About 20 minutes after sun-rise (the wren-tit is a relatively late riser) the male sings from his roost-ing perch. The female responds with her call, and both often repeatthem. In 10 or 15 minutes the male comes to the nest bush, and whenhe is within a few inches the female leaves. Her first action is tostretch thoroughly, then in a few moments she is off in search of food.In 15 or 20 minutes she returns, and when she is close to the nest hermate leaves. He sings almost at once and frequently while he is for-aging and patrolling his territory and as he approaches the nest again.Similar exchanges continue throughout the day though the shiftsgradually lengthen to 45 or 60 minutes during midday and againshorten toward sunset. Finally when the female returns to the nestwithin 30 minutes or less of sunset no more changes occur. The malesings often as dusk approaches, and his last songs come from near oron the roosting perch.Young.?The eggs of a set hatch within a period of 24 hours. Intwo nests that I observed, two eggs hatched early one morning, a thirdlater in the day, and a fourth the following morning. During the first35 days the young are constantly brooded by one or the other of the758066?48 7
86 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
adults except for the brief moment when one leaves and the other feedsbefore settling on the nests. Older young are left uncovered for shortintervals during the warm parts of the day and may not be brooded atall the last few days before fledging.Food is brought on each return of the adults at intervals at 15 to30 minutes when the adults are brooding and of 5 minutes or less whenthe young are older. The food, which is carried in the bill and isoften a conspicuous mass of green larvae, is placed in the mouths of oneor more young while the parent perches on the rim of the nest. Atfirst there is usually some for each of the three or four young, later onlyone or two receive food at each visit. The first to raise its head if onlyby a fraction of a second, is served first. One receiving no food willcontinue to hold its head up, and often the adult rapidly and repeatedlythrusts its bill into the upturned throat. There is probably no regurgi-tation of food, for the bill and throat of the adult seem quite empty.The slight jar caused by the adult landing on the nest or nearby twigsis the signal to the young that a meal is at hand. The adults seem tohave no specific calls to their young. The fecal sacs are eaten by theadult, if it remains on the nest, or are carried away, if it does not brood.The young are naked at hatching. By the third day many of thefeathers show as slight irregularities on the surface. By the fifth daythe feathers show as slight ridges, with the tips protruding above thesurface of the skin, and the resting posture is upright rather than onthe side. By the tenth day the young when huddled in the nest seemcompletely covered but the feathers do not actually cover the apteriauntil the twelfth or thirteenth day. At this age the young stand upin the nest, stretch, preen, vibrate their wings, and give a faint foodcall.On the fifteenth or sixteenth day after hatching, the young leave thenest. On two occasions of which I have record, they left before 7 : 30 onthe fifteenth day. One family was evidently frightened from the nestwhen only 13 or 14 days old, and two of the three young survived. Thebrood that Newberrj'^ watched all left the nest explosively at 1 : 30 onthe sixteenth day. Twice that I know of, one of the young remainedin the nest several hours or a day longer than the others. At the timethe young leave the nest, the body is well covered, but the wing feathersare not fully grown and the tail is scarcely an inch long. The iris iswhite as in the adult.The first day out of the nest the young are easily located by theirfrequent calls. They remain perched most of the time. If forcedto move they progress by a series of short hops accompanied by prob-ably useless fluttering of the wings, but they are not sure-footed and ifhurried often fail to gain the intended perch and scramble desperatelyto gain a footing and recover their balance. I was able to catch andband two such families. By the following day the young respond to
GAMBEL'S WREN-TIT 87the alarm note of their parents with frozen silence, and it is next toimpossible to locate them. They also move with such facility that theycannot be taken. By the fifth day they move with as much skill andease as the adults. By the time the young are 30 to 35 days old theyare probably securing some food for themselves, but still beg from andare fed by their parents. A week later they scold as do the adults. Bythe time they are 9 or 10 weeks old they are no longer dependent onthe adults and wander or possibly are driven, from the adults' territory.Plv/mages.?The young at hatching are without down and the onlyvestige of a down plumage that ever develops is the 2- to 3-millimeterneossoptiles on the tips of the rectrices.[Author's note: Ridgway (1904) says that the young are "similarto adults but texture of plumage looser, color of pileum and hindneckless grayish (concolor with that of back) and that of under partsduller and grayer." A small young bird in my collection, of the sub-species henshawi^ in juvenal plumage, fits the above description, ex-cept that the under parts are more buffy than in the adults, "pinkishbuff."The postnuptial molt of adults, and apparently the postjuvenal moltof young birds, occur mainly in August, though some young birdsmay molt earlier in the season. I have seen adults in worn plumageup to August 10, others that were still molting on September 10,and still others that had nearly or quite completed the molt onSeptember 3.]
.Food.?The wren-tit's diet consists of insects, which are taken allthe year but in great abundance during spring and summer, and smallfruits, which are taken when available, principally during fall andwinter. F. E. L. Beal's (1907) study of 165 stomachs sTiows that, ofthe 48 percent of vegetable food taken, 36 percent consisted of elder-berries, snowberries, coffeeberries, twinberries, blackberries, and thefruit of poison oak. The poison-oak berries, which remain in anedible condition on the bushes for a long time, made up a fourth ofthe diet from August to February. I have seen all of these fruitseaten and in addition thimbleberries, huckleberries, and toyonberries.The insect food that Beal found to make up 52 percent of the food con-sisted of 23 percent ants and small wasps, 10 percent beetles, 8 percentcaterpillars, 7 percent bugs, principally scales, 2 percent spiders, afew flies, and in one case each the remains of a grasshopper and a wood-cricket. I successfuly kept wren-tits in captivity on a diet consistingof mixtures for soft-billed birds, banana, cottage cheese, lettuce, breadcrumbs, and occasional live insects and wild berries. The young arefed principally on caterpillars, spiders and their cocoons and eggs,leafhoppers and other bugs, and small beetles. I have also seen adultscome to a feeding table and get bread crumbs to feed their nestlingsand fledglings.
88 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe wren-tit finds its food principally on the bark surfaces, and to aless extent on the leaves and fruiting stems. Karely they go to theground. Not infrequently an individual flies up and hangs invertedwhile hunting among the leaves of live oaks for larvae, as a bushtitor titmouse might do. A few times individuals hovered at stickymonkey flowers. Once one caught a small butterfly which flew near,snipped off its wings, and swallowed the body.Small objects, such as most of the insects and poison-oak berries,are swallowed whole; large ones are broken up. After obtaining alarge morsel, the wren-tit resorts to a twig, places the object underone foot, and pulls off small pieces with its bill. Snowberries andthimbleberries are regularly handled in this way, elderberries some-times. The berry is pecked until the skin is broken, and then piecesare pulled off and swallowed. Seeds met with are discarded, thoughthe large flesh-coated seed of poison oak is swallowed and later dis-gorged. Large bread crimibs were held with the foot, or small pieceswere broken off with a quick shake of the head.Wren-tits drink water when it is available either from pools or thedrops of moisture that collect on the leaves, but in much of theirrange they appear to do without water for periods of several weeks.Behavior.?A wren-tit's habitat is such that most of its movementsare a series of hops or flights of a few feet from one twig to the next.Individuals do not cross open spaces of even 30 or 40 feet readily orfrequently. The longest flight I observed was about 150 feet overopen grassland, but such flights are unusual.Care of the plumage, which involves the usual preening and bath-ing, has two features of special interest. Preening is usually done bythe individual's working over the feathers with its bill, or where thebill cannot reach, with its foot Not infrequently, however, the mem-bers of a pair or family preen one another. The activity is usuallylimited to the region of the head but sometimes includes the feathersof the back, sides, breast, and crissum. The method is always thesame : the bill is thrust into the feathers and a single one is manipu-lated between the mandibles from the calamus to the tip of the vane.Bathing in puddles when they occur near bushes includes the usualbobbing and splashing, but the plumage is moistened by a series ofmomentary dips rather than one long one. Rain- or fog-moistenedbrush is perhaps a commoner source of water for bathing. Birdsmove about in the leafy crowns, brushing and bumping against thewet leaves until their plumage is well dampened, and then the cus-tomary shaking and preening take place. Once a bird was obsei*vedto dust-bathe.I observed the roosting habits in both cage and wild birds andfound that the pair, and presumably a family, roost together. A pair
GAMBEL'S WREN-TIT 89
sit side by side, facing in the same direction and so near together thatthey appear as a single ball of feathers from which tails, wings, andfeet protrude?an appearance that is not accidental but is producedby fluffing, spreading, and interlacing the body feathers to such adegree that when the heads are turned to the outside and buried underthe scapulars a single ball remains without so much as a line ofseparation. This arrangement of the feathers is an active processinvolving both movements of the feathers by the muscles that controlthem and manipulation of them with the bill. Usually the birds sitso low that the body feathers touch the perch and partly conceal thetoes, but sometimes the bodies are well above the perch and thenone can see that the inner leg of each bird is drawn into the feathermass and the weight supported on the outside leg. The angle of theleg to the body suggests that the two birds are braced against eachother. In the wild the roost is a horizontal branch within the crownof a bush. The same roost is used frequently but not necessarily onsuccessive nights.The fighting between adjoining pairs that takes place during bound-ary disputes rarely deserves the name. The head feathers of thecontestants are raised, the long tail cocked sharply up, the bodycrouched and tense. Each bird eyes its opponent and shifts its posi-tion or perch as if sparring for an opening. One or more may uttera staccato ter ter or a continuous pit. This action may go on for onlya moment or for 15 minutes or longer. If it is prolonged one birdmay fly at the other, but the latter makes a quick shift and is a footor two away when the attacker reaches the empty perch. This con-tinues as the opponents move rapidly through a bush, or along theboundary or back and forth across it. Sometimes the pursuer becomesthe pursued. Rarely, the combatants fly at each other and momen-tarily flutter through the brush or on the ground, bills clicking andwings striking. Eventually one pair, usually the invaders, worksback toward the center of its territory, and the other soon does like-wise. The defending male usually sings, the invader sometimes does.Wren-tits are persistent in scolding the California jays, which entertheir territory during the breeding season. When a jay is discoveredthe pair circle or follow it, constantly hopping about and uttering akrrring sound until the jay moves on out of their territory. The jaysseem quite indifferent, but I found this habit useful in two ways. Onewas in marking the territory of a pair by where they began andceased to scold jays. The other was to attract marked birds I wishedto identify to a given point by putting up a mounted jay. This ruseworked only for a short time, but it did enable me to learn the identityof several individuals.Various actions of the wren-tit disclose the approximate location
90 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of the nest, though in my experience the nest is not easily found. Anintruder near the nest is scolded persistently and vigorously with akrrring note, which becomes intenser as one nears the nest and de-creases as one moves away from it. During the incubation periodpatient watching and listening should indicate the point from whichthe male sings as he goes to the nest and as he leaves. In either case,a search of the likely bushes in the region so indicated may revealthe nest. Finding the nest by watching adults carrying food is com-paratively easy in this species. I never found that a random huntthrough the bushes paid dividends.The reaction of a wren-tit on a nest to an intruder varied in myexperience. If the approach is quiet, the wren-tit usually remains onthe nest until the hand is brought within a few inches. Then it silentlyslips off into the surrounding brush. Here it may remain quiet or itmay scold. Sometimes the song or pit-pit call is given. Twice I wassuccessful in painting a spot on the tail of an incubating bird. Threetimes birds with young exploded from the nest and fluttered andtumbled through the brush rapidly vibrating their wings, but thesecases were the exception.A wren-tit rarely, if ever, deserts eggs or young. Several nests Ifound in the early stages of construction were subsequently completedand used. Others were not, though there was no direct evidence thatmy discovery caused the desertion. One pair continued to incubatealthough work on a nearby trail pulled the nest into an exposedposition at the top of the brush.Voice.?The wren-tit is best known by its song, a series of loud-ringing whistlelike notes all on the same pitch and given at decreas-ing intervals until they run together into a trill. Grinnell (1913)recorded it as pit?j>^i?P^^?V^^?pit-tr-r-r-r-r. Slight variationsoccur. A common one is an increase or decrease in the number of
^^pits^\ Another, peculiar to a few individuals, is a short tr noteat the end of the trill. Other variations of quality and rhythm andslight change in pitch and duration occur. The song is usuallygiven while the bird is hidden within the leafy crown, but it may begiven by a bird on a semiopen perch at the top of a bush. It maybe given repeatedly from a single perch or as a momentary interrup-tion while a bird is foraging. The singing posture is alert, thehead raised, the tail tilted upward. The entire body, especially thethroat and tail, vibrates in rhythm with the notes.The full song is given throughout the entire year and is charac-teristic of the male. Many times I have identified the member ofa marked pair that was singing, and only once was it the female.She gave it a few times while her mate was fighting with a neigh-boring male. From my experience I believe that, except during a
GAMBEL'S WREN-TIT 91territorial dispute, the bird giving the song may be assumed to bethe male. The song appears to have a double purpose. It is usedas an announcement of territorial possession. One male sings, aneighbor sings, the first repeats its song, and so on until most malesare echoing the song. The male often sings as he advances to drivean intruder out of his territory. It also serves as a call or answerto his mate as will be described below.What might be considered another variation of the song is actuallya distinct call. It is similar to the song in quality, intensity, andpitch, but all the notes of the series are given with the same rhythm,so that it does not end in a trill. As compared with the song, itmight be written as pit?pit?pit?pit?pit?pit?pit. The numberof notes in the series is usually 7 or 8 but may be only 2 or morethan 15. The individual notes are sometimes more a peeka, pita, orpeet, and the intensity is more variable than that of the full song.This call is used mainly by the female but is also used by the maleand is a call to the mate. Innumerable times I have heard the fullsong given first and answered by this one, or the reverse is justas frequent. Often the calls alternate three to six times, or they mayeven be given simultaneously. Such calls and answers may be heardat any time of day and throughout the year and seem to give thelocation of one to the other, as one of the birds frequently goes to theother. Sexual excitement may also play a part as variations of thesecalls, variously recorded during field work as pit-tr-tr-tr-tr,perrrrrrrrt, musical repeated trrrr or weak pit followed by accentedtrrrrr, are heard on the days when the pair is completing a nestand sexual flight or copulation is taking place, though neither ofthese acts is invariably accompanied by this song.Sometimes the response to the loud-ringing call of either the maleor female is a faint burring note, hrrrrrr. This short note is givenat intervals as a pair forages and seems to keep the two near together.A similar but louder accented krrrr, often repeated three or fourtimes, is an alarm note. It is given as the bird disappears in thebrush when it is startled. It is often given by a trapped bird orby another bird that is circling the trap.A loud continuous Jcrrrr that may be kept up for minutes on end isa scolding or mobbing note. At intervals it may be interrupted, onlyto start again with equal vigor. The bill is held slightly open, andthe whole body vibrates as the sound is produced. The bird is inconstant motion, shifting from one perch to another and following orcircling the disturbing factor, usually a jay. The same note was usedto mob a sharp-shinned hawk. Once a snake appeared to be the cause.The same sound was often given when I was near the nest.
92 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMA squealing note, scree or schree^ was heard a few times. Three orfour times ii- was given when I reached into a trap to take the bird inmy hand or when I was banding it. The same sound was heard dur-ing fights between individuals kept in cages, once by a bird fightingbill to bill with another, and once by a male when another attacked it.It appears to be a note of fear, defeat, or submission.During boundary disputes between established pairs, a series oflow staccato notes, which I have recorded as pW piP 'pit\ tuf tut\ orpeeha, is commonly given, often by several birds at once.The first songs of the young may have the full ringing quality ofthe adults, but often they are thin, weak, and tremulous. The trill thatterminates it is frequently more prolonged and has a warblerlikequality.Field marhs.?An outstanding field character of the wren-tit is itslong tail tilted up at an angle from the body, rovmded at the tip andnarrow at the base. Other characteristics are the general grayishbrown of the back and the cinnamon-brown of the underparts, itsrelatively long legs, the way it remains hidden within the brush, andthe fact that two are invariably seen together. If one is near enoughthe white iris may be seen. The songs and calls are distinctive andeasily learned.Enemies.?The destruction of eggs and young by natural causes ishigh. Of 24 nests found before or soon after the set was completed,young were fledged from only 10. Wren-tits recognize jays as asource of danger to their young, and with reason, for both Mrs. A. S.Allen (MS.) and I have seen the jays take eggs and young from nests.Other enemies of the young and adults are probably those common tomost small species. Dr. A. H. Miller found the remains of two wren-tits in the pellet of a horned owl.Fall and tvinter.?As already indicated, the adults remain in pairson their territories during fall and winter. Their activities continueon a relatively uniform level and serve to maintain themselves, theircompanionship, and their territory. They are constant companions,forage together, keep track of each other by calls, preen each other,sleep together, and may rarely show sexual excitement to the degree ofattempting copulation. They are relatively tolerant of the wanderingyoung and are themselves occasionally found a little distance beyondtheir usual boundaries, but the male sings regularly and both defendthe territory from aggressive invasion.The young, on the other hand, tend to wander during the early fall.Of 46 banded young reared in the canyon where I watched intensively,only one was seen or trapped after it was nine weeks old, though un-handed immatures were common. One of my banded young whennine weeks old was trapped half a mile from its original home. It is at
GAMBEL'S WREN-TIT 93this time that wren-tits are seen in the shrubbery of dwellings. Howfar they wander is diiScult to say, but I doubt if it is more than tenmiles. Soon after this period of wandering, the young tend to re-main in one place, usually with a companion of the opposite sex.Sometime in the course of the winter, certainly by March, it ceases tobe satisfied with merely a place to forage and a casual companion.If a male, it tries to acquire a territory ; if a female, it seeks an un-mated male with a territory. Most but not all are successful. Onceestablished it will, usually, survive on its territory for 5 years, but itmay persist for as long as 10 years.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Oregon to Baja California.The wren-tit is found north to northwestern Oregon (Astoria).East to western Oregon (Astoria, Rogue River Valley, Gold Hill,and Medford) ; central California (Hornbrook; the western slope ofthe Sierra Nevada, Yosemite, Walker Pass, Kern County, and the SanBernardino Mountains) ; and Baja California (east base of the SierraSan Pedro Martir and Aquaita). South to Baja California aboutlatitude 30? (Aquaito) . West to the Pacific Ocean, Baja California(San Quintin, San Ramon, and San Telmo) ; California (San Diego,Santa Paula, San Francisco, and Humboldt and Del Norte Counties) ;Oregon (Newport, Tillamook, and Astoria).The range as outlined is for the entire species, which has been dividedinto six subspecies or geographic races. The coast wren-tit {G. f.phaea) is found in the humid coastal region of Oregon from theColumbia River about to the California line ; the ruddy wren-tit ( C. f.inifula) occurs in the humid coast belt of California south to SanFrancisco Bay ; the intermediate wren-tit ( G. f. intermedia) is foundin the San Francisco Bay region, except the coastal strip north of theGolden Gate, south to Santa Clara County; Gambel's wren-tit {G. f.fa^ciata) occurs in the coastal strip of Monterey and San Luis ObispoCounties ; the pallid wren-tit {G. f. hetishawi) is found from the RogueRiver Valley of Jackson County, Oreg., and in the foothills and valleysof interior and southern California, and along the coast from SantaBarbara County to about the Mexican boundary ; the San Pedro wren-tit {G. f. canicauda) is found in northwestern Baja California, southto about latitude 30?.Casual records.?A pair were collected at Klamath Falls, Oreg., onNovember 7, 1912 ; an individual was observed in July 1937, 10 milesnorth of Kelso, Wash.Egg dates.?California : 118 records, March 1 to July 2 ; 45 records,May 1 to May 22 ; 35 records, March 10 to April 6.
94 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMCHAMAEA FASCIATA INTERMEDIA GrinnellINTERMEDIATE WREN-TITAlthough this subspecies was originally described and named nearly50 years ago, it has only recently been recognized in the twentiethsupplement to our Check-list (Auk, vol. 63, p. 431, 1946)
.
Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1900) described it as follows: "Back andupper tail-coverts, sepia, shading into hair brown on nape and topof head. Lores and small spots on upper and lower eye-lids, palegray. Throat and breast, cinnamon-rufous, fading posteriorly intopale vinaceous-cinnamon on middle of belly. Feathers on breast,with faint dusky shaftstreaks. Sides, flanks and lower tail-coverts,brownish olive. Under wing-coverts and axillars, pale vinaceous-cinnamon. Wings and tail, clove-brown, the feathers with slightlypaler edgings."This subspecies is clearly intermediate between the dark northernrace and the pale southern form. Whether it is wise to recognizeintermediate forms in nomenclature is open to serious question. Wehave no reason to think that it differs materially in any of its habitsfrom other races of the species. Its eggs seem to be indistinguishablefrom those of the species elsewhere. It has only a limited range in theSan Francisco Bay region, except the coastal strip north of the GoldenGate, and southward to Santa Clara County.CHAMAEA FASCIATA HENSHAWI RidgwayPALLID WREN-TITPlate 20HABITSThe pallid wren-tit is the most widely distributed race of the species.The 1931 Check-list gives its range as the "Upper Austral Zone of thefoothills and valleys of interior and southern California from ShastaCounty south, and along the coast from Santa Barbara County to theMexican boundary."Living as it does in an arid environment, it is also the palest of theCalifornia races. Ridgway (1904) describes it as "similar to C. f.fasciata, but decidedly paler, the back, scapulars, rump, etc., grayishbrown (deep hair brown), the pileum and hindneck brownish gray(nearly mouse gray or deep smoke gray), and general color of underparts varying from very pale grayish buff to buffy ecru-drab or palevinaceous-buff, fading to nearly white on lower abdomen." He re-marks in a footnote that "occasional specimens from the southerncoast district are nearly as deeply colored beneath as true C. fasciatayIn spite of its interior habitat, the haunts of this wren-tit seem tobe similar to those described under Gambel's wren-tit, for Grinnell and
SAN PEDRO WREN-TIT 95Storer (1924) write of its haunts in the Yosemite region: "The regu-lar niche of the Pallid Wren-tit is in the foothill chaparral, beneaththe crown-foliage of the brush plants and so usually not more than5 feet from the ground. Fully nine-tenths of the bird's existence ispassed in this shallow zone. Occasionally wren-tits are to be seen upin oaks or other trees growing amid or close to the brush, while nowand then a bird will be noted on the ground, momentarily. But thethree essentials for the bird's life, food, shelter from enemies, and safenesting sites, are afforded in largest measure in the chaparral itself."Nesting.?The same writers located a nest of this wren-tit 7 feetabove the ground, much higher than is usual, "in the spray of ter-minal foliage of a slanting greasewood stalk."Wright M. Pierce (1907) found a nest of the pallid wren-tit inSan Antonio Canyon, elevation about 4,500 feet, near Claremont,Calif. He describes it as follows
:
It was situated among thick branches and near the top of a scrub oak bushperhaps two and a half feet up, and is a gem of bird workmanship, composed,as it is, of bleached weed fibres such as fine grasses, an abundance of soft plantdown, a little weed bark, and fine hairy threads of bark of the j^cca plant,with a few wider blades of grass intermixed and woven about thru the wholethick-walled structure. A thick mass of horse hair makes the lining. To morefirmly bind and hold together the nest, which even without would have beenunusually strong and serviceable, these ingenious little birds used cobwebs asan outer covering to make their house doubly strong. The dimensions of thenest are : Depth, outside, 5 inches ; inside, 2 inches. Diameter, outside, 4 inches
;
inside, 2 inches.This seems to be an unusually large nest in outside dimensions.There are two nests in the Thayer collection in Cambridge, takennear Escondido, that were placed about 2 feet up in sagebushes; finestrips of sage bark and some of the sage blossoms were used in theconstruction, which must have helped to conceal the nests.This seems to be the only one of the wren-tits that has been recordedas a victim of the dwarf cowbird ; Dr. Friedmann (1934) reports onlythree cases of such parasitism.The eggs of the pallid wren-tit are similar to those of the other racesof the species. The measurements of 40 eggs average 18.0 by 14.1millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 19.4 by 14.3,18.3 by 14.7, and 16.8 by 13.4 millimeters.CHAMAEA FASCIATA CANICAUDA Grinnell ind SwarthSAN PEDRO WREN-TITHABITSTills is the southernmost of the wren-tits, living in northwesternBaja California, from the United States boundary south to aboutlatitude 30.
96 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIn describing this race, Grinnell and Swarth (1926) give, as itsdistinguishing characters
?
pale colored as regards plumage, more so even than its nearest geographicrelative, henshawi, hence the palest colored of the forms of Chamaea fasoiata.The differences distinguishing canicauda from henshawi, though slight (hardlyappreciable in badly vporn plumage) are, it seems to us, notable in being of adifferent sort from those distinguishing henshawi from C. /. fasciata. In thelatter case, while henshami is much paler than fasciata, they are both hroimitinged birds. In canicauda the browns are almost eliminated. The cinnamonof the underparts is extremely pale, the middle of the belly being nearly white,the upperparts, whole head, wings, and flanks are slaty, while the tail is deepslate. In canicauda the bill and feet are unequivocally black ; in all the otherraces of Chamaea the bill and feet are more or less tinged with brown?"horncolor."A. W. Anthony (1893), while exploring the San Pedro MartirMountain, found this wren-tit "common along the lower slopes of themountain and not rare in the highest altitudes where it nests in thescrub oak and Manzanita."The measurements of 7 eggs in the P. B, Philipp collection average18.5 by 14.3 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure20.4 by 14.0, 17.6 by 14.8, and 17.3 by 14.2 millimeters.Family CINCLIDAE: DippersCINCLUS MEXICANUS UNICOLOR BonaparteDIPPERPlates 22-24HABrrsFrom northwestern Alaska and northeastern British Columbiasouthward to southern California and New Mexico, the dipper, orwater ouzel, enjoys a wide distribution throughout the mountainranges of western North America as far east as the eastern foothillsof the Rocky Mountains, wherever it can find clear, cool, rushingmountain streams, with waterfalls, cascades, rapids and quiet pools,among which it loves to dwell, and to which it is strictly confined.Our bird differs from the type of the species, now understood to bemainly confined to Mexico and Central America, in paler colorationwith the head and neck less decidedly brown, though not entirely freefrom this color, hence the name imicolor.The dipper lives at different elevations in various parts of its range,where it is permanently resident, but obliged to seek the lower levelswhen winter freezes the upper reaches of the streams. Nelson (1887)found it "at the headwaters of the Yukon," as well as "along the shoresof Norton and Kotzebue Sounds, where the small streams flow intothe sea." We saw only one pair in the Aleutian Islands, on an inland
DIPPER 97mountain stream near a little waterfall at Unalaska, not much abovesea level; Lucien M. Turner (1886) says that it is not common inthese islands, but is a permanent resident.We found it at Ketchikan, Alaska, on the stream that dashes downfrom the mountains just back of the town, and on the coast of BritishColumbia, not far from salt water. In the Yellowstone Park, M. P.Skinner observed it at levels ranging from 5,300 to well above the8,000-foot level. Grinnell and Storer (1924) record it in the "Cana-dian and Hudsonian zones at altitudes of from 2,000 to 10,000 feet,and is continuously resident, even under the rigors of the Sierranwinter, up as high as water remains open," in the Yosemite region.In Colorado, according to Sclater (1912), it ranges from 5,000 feetup to timberline at 11,500 feet. And Mrs. Bailey (1928) records it inNew Mexico as low as 7,000 and as high as 11,600 feet. The Americandipper seems to reach its southern limits in Arizona ; we saw one inRamsey Canyon on April 13, 1922, and Swarth (1904b) saw one inthe same place in the Huachuca Mountains on August 4, 1902. Weexplored the lower portion of Sabino Canyon, at the southern endof the Catalina Mountains, but saw no dippers there. Charles T.Vorhies (1921) , however, found a pair on two occasions in this canyon,eight or ten miles up from the mouth of the rocky stream ; he thoughtthey were probably resident there.No better account of the American dipper has ever been writtenthan John Muir's (1894) chapter on the water ouzel; I cannot dobetter than to quote freely from it, as it covers the gi'ound most beau-tifully. Of its characteristic haunts, he writes
:
Among all the countless waterfalls I have met in the course of ten years'exploration in the Sierra, whether among the icy peaks, or warm foot-hills, orin the profund yosemitic canons of the middle region, not one was found withoutits Ouzel. No caiion is too cold for this little bird, none too lonely, provided itbe rich in falling water. Find a fall, or cascade, or rushing rapid, anywhereupon a clear stream, and there you will surely find its complementary Ouzel,flitting about in the spray, diving in foaming eddies, whirling like a leaf amongbeaten foam-bells ; ever vigorous and enthusiastic, yet self-contained, and neitherseeking nor shunning your company. * * * He is the mountain streams'own darling, the humming-bird of blooming waters, loving rocky ripple-slopes andsheets of foam as a bee loves flowers, as a lark loves sunshine and meadows.But the water ouzel, as I prefer to call it, is not wholly confined atall times to the mountam streams and waterfalls. Several observershave seen it on the shores of lakes, or feeding in them at considerabledepths.Taylor and Shaw (1927) observed several birds "on the quiet watersof the Tahoma Creek beaver pond," on Mount Rainier; and "waterouzels were frequently seen swinging low over the water near the shoresof Reflection and Mowich Lakes, apparently as much at home as in thecascading creeks below."
98 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMReferring to Yellowstone Park, Mr. Skinner (1922) writes: "Onlyonce have I seen one away from water and then he was flying overthe quarter mile stretch between two streams. I have seen them onstreams not more than two feet wide in the fir forests ; along ditches, ifthe water be but clear and running; and occasionally, in November,along a ditch watering a barn yard. They live about beaver ponds."GouTtship.?Clyde E. Ehinger (1930) watched a pair of dippersflying down a stream, keeping close together, and acting in a mannerthat seemed to suggest mating antics. He says
:
A typical incident of the kind was noted on February 6. A smaller and lightercolored bird?which I believe to have been a female?was observed spreadingand fluttering her wings and closely following the bird which was singing.At times she would run rapidly toward him, with head lowered, wings extendedand in rapid motion. These charging motions were repeated again and again,the male however, apparently giving but scant heed. It seemed quite obviousthat the advances?at the time?were mainly made by the female, althoughthe male gave vent to ardent bursts of song when the female flew to or pasthim. It seemed as though the little lady gave expression to her feelings chieflyby means of muscular movements and attitudes while her admirer expressedhis passions by means of sweet melodies.Nesting.?The water ouzel builds a beautiful and unique nest, uniquein structure and unique in location. The characteristic location, andprobably the usual location under primitive conditions, is close to andalmost in its beloved mountain stream, often far from the haunts ofman, sometimes under a waterfall hidden by the falling torrent, some-times fully exposed to view on a rock in midstream, but more oftenon some narrow ledge on the face of a rocky cliff among mosses andferns, where it is beautifully camouflaged and constantly wet withflying spray or mist. Muir (1894) describes it very well as follows
:
The Ouzel's nest is one of the most extraordinary pieces of bird architectureI ever saw, odd and novel in design, perfectly fresh and beautiful, and in everyway worthy of the genius of the little builder. It is about a foot in diameter,round and bossy in outline, with a neatly arched opening near the bottom, some-what like an old-fashioned brick oven, or Hottentot's hut. It is built almostexclusively of green and yellow mosses, chiefly the beautiful fronded hypnum thatcovers the rocks and old drift-logs in the vicinity of waterfalls. These aredeftly interwoven, and felted together into a charming little hut ; and so situatedthat many of the outer mosses continue to flourish as if they had not beenplucked. A few fine, silky-stemmed grasses are occasionally found interwovenwith the mosses, but, with the exception of a thin layer lining the floor, theirpresence seems accidental, as they are of a species found growing with the mossesand are probably plucked with them. * * *In choosing a building-spot, concealment does not seem to be taken intoconsideration ; yet notwithstanding the nest is large and guilelessly exposed toview, it is far from being easily detected, chiefly because it swells forward likeany other bulging moss-cushion growing naturally in such situations. This ismore especially the case where the nest is kept fresh by being well sprinkled.Sometimes these romantic little huts have their beauty enhanced by rock-ferns
DIPPER 99and grasses that spring up around the mossy walls, or in front of the door-sill,dripping with crystal beads.Nests are not always placed on rocks; several have been reportedas built among the upturned roots of fallen trees, near or over thewater. Mrs. TVHieelock (1904) reports one that "was located on asmooth granite boulder that rose from tlie white foam of the AmericanRiver in the Sierra Nevada. Resting half on the rock and half inthe stream was a fallen tree trunk, and under the shelter of this onthe slippery rock the Ouzel had woven his little moss nest, kept freshand green by tlie spray that dashed over it."Since man has invaded some of the ouzel's mountain haunts, thebirds have learned to use man-made structures, little daunted by humanactivities in the vicinity. A number of nests have been observedunder bridges that were in regular use. Such nests were built againstor upon tlie girders or the supporting beams, often close up to theplanking ; the nest in such a situation had to be made to fit the avail-able space ; sometimes there was not room for the usual dome, which,of course, was not needed for protection; an occasional bridge nestmay be entirely open at the top, like a phoebe's nest. Dean Amadontells me that he found a dipper's nest, in Wyoming, that was under abridge on a main improved road; it was 4 feet above the water ontop of a supporting beam. Nests have been found under bridges invillages. Two rather remarkable cases of such familiarity with civ-ilization have been recorded. Many years ago. Dr. Cooper (Suckleyand Cooper, 1860) wrote:I found a nest of this bird at a saw mill down on the Chehalis river. It wasbuilt under the shelving roots of an immense arbor-vitae, which had floatedover and rested in a slanting position against the dam. The floor was madeof small twigs and bare, the sides and roof arching over it like an oven, andformed of moss projecting above so as to shelter the opening. This was largeenough to admit the hand, and tlie inside very capacious. It contained half-fledged young. The old birds were familiar and fearless, being accustomed tothe noise of the mill and the society of the men, who were much interested bytheir curious habits. They had already raised a brood in the same nest thatsummer.In a small village in ]\Iodoc County, Calif., Charles L. Whittle(1921) traced a water ouzel to its nest in a wooden lean-to, or shed,in the rear of the village bank, built of brick. "As close inspectionas possible revealed the bird's somewhat bulky nest placed on ahorizontal timber near where it joined a rafter and close against theend of the shed. The nest was placed directly over and some 8 feetabove the water," which flowed swiftly under the shed.Nest-building seems to be performed mainly, if not wholly, bythe female in a most ingenious manner. This is fully described insome extracts from the notebooks of Denis Gale, published by Junius
100 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMHenderson (1908), to which the reader is referred, as his account istoo long to be included here.Aretas A. Saunders tells me that, in Montana, "some dipper nests,built on rocks, are without a bottom or lining, the eggs being depositedon the rocks, the nest being merely a roof, side walls and the usualfront entrance, made of woven moss."Samuel F. Kathbun refers in his notes to a dipper's nest in an un-usual location
:
It was placed on the sloping top of a stump, and at a height of three feetahove the surface of a small, swiftly running stream in the mountain foothills.There was a cavity of some size in the top of the stump, and this was completelyfilled with a mass of fresh moss, some of which had been worljed into the underside of the nest proper to aid in its attachment. The wliole affair resembled aroughly-shaped ball of green moss on the top of the stump, which was in phiinview in an open spot just within the water's edge. But since there was aconsiderable growth of moss on the side of the stump, it helped to mal^e themass of moss less noticeable.Mr. Saunders writes to me of another well-concealed nest : "Therewas a small waterfall about 2 feet high and near it I saw a dipperwith food in its bill. There was moss on the rocks all around thefall, but I saw no nest. Then the bird went to a vertical wall of mossnear the fall, and evidently fed young. When it had gone, I investi-gated and the moment my hand touched the wall of moss several youngpopped out of a hole in the moss into the pool below the fall. Thenest, from external appearance, was merely a hole in the moss wall,back of which there was a niche in the rock."Eggs.?The American dipper lays from three to six eggs in a set,usually four or five. These are ovate in shape, sometimes slightlyelongated and often somewhat pointed at the small end. They arepure, dead white and entirely unmarked. The measurements of 50eggs average 25.9 by 18.5 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four ex-tremes measure 28.5 by 19.1, 26.2 by 19.5, 24.0 by 19.0, and 25.0 by 17.0millimeters.Young,?According to J. A. Steiger (1940), "the female alonecovers the eggs during incubation, and about the thirteenth dayhatching occurs. * * * After about 18 days of rapid growth,the fledglings file from the crowded nest. Amidst raucous call-ing, the experimenting young follow the creek. Flying at short dis-tances, the parents entice their charges from rock to rock, seemingto encourage them to greater and braver acts."Dr. A. H. Cordier (1927) built a platform within 6 feet of awater ouzel's nest, from which the following observations weremade: "The female did most of the feeding. * * * On one oc-casion when my head was within 18 inches of the nest, the femalelit on the face of a slick rock 3 feet from the nest, but only for a
DIPPER 101
second. She had in her beak a small rainbow trout, which shedelivered to one of the young birds. Although there were four youngbirds, at no feeding did I see more than two gaping mouths pro-truding from the nest's entrance." The feeding visits of the male
"were about 1 to 10 as compared with those of the female," andDr. Cordier continues
:
The female fed about 8 times per hour. The male fed ofteuest between10 and 2 o'clock, at which time the combined feeding visits averaged 12 perhour. I noticed that the male made most of his visits to the nest while the femalewas brooding. She entered the nest by crawling over the young birds, turnedabout within the nest cavity and remained far back in the nest. At suchtimes when the male made his visits, she remained in the nest, the young birdsprotruding their heads from beneath her breast to receive food from themale. * * *The birds are extremely cleanly in their habits. As the interior of the nestwas often inspected, any excrement found adhering to a straw or piece ofmoss was carefully picked up and carried away. The young birds whendefecating turned the tail toward the nest entrance and with a well markedexpulsive effort shot foecal mass 4 to 6 inches from the nest. These masseswere always enclosed in a membrane. Many of them rolled unbroken downthe rocky incline into the water and were carried down stream. Those re-maining were picked up by the female and removed. * * * One bird onlywas fed at a feeding visit.Probably two broods usually are raised in a season under favorablecircumstances throughout most of the dipper's range, though this ishardly likely in the more northern regions. The young are muchmore precocial than are the young of other passerine birds. Theyseem to know instinctively, as soon as they leave the nest, how to run,climb, dive and swim, or flutter along the surface of the water ; theysoon become as much at home in the water as their parents.Claude T. Barnes has sent me the following interesting account:"On July 24, 1930, while I was in City Creek Canyon, near SaltLake City, Utah, at an altitude of about 6,000 feet, it was my raregood fortune to see a water ouzel feeding its young. Sitting idlybeside the noisy stream, I first heard a continuous cry, which re-sembled somewhat the stridulation of a locust, yet more, in itslusty character, the squeal of a mouse, distinct above the brook'spurling and extended for three or four minutes at a time. Puzzled,I waited until the cause appeared; a young water ouzel, nearly aslarge as its mother, hopped to a stone on the opposite bank, con-stantly making the crying sound, which I thought now similar tothe noise of a fighting hummingbird. The mother ouzel was ahead,wading the stream, diving occasionally into the water, and busyingherself with the finding of worms and grubs. As she did this theyoung bird cried, watched her, followed her, flipped its wings, and,every few moments, made the characteristic bob of the species. Fi-758066?48 8
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nally the mother got a grub; and, as if aware of the fact, the littleone began violently to agitate its wings and to cry more greedilyfor its dinner. The mother ouzel flew to it, placed the grub in itsmouth, and indifferently went to work again. Satisfied for themoment, the young one dipped its head into the water, ceased crying,and rested, only to become apprehensive about the mother's progressaway, and to renew its crying and watchful following. For themost part, it kept close to the edges where the water was but an inchor so deep and protruding stones were numerous, though, now andagain, it flew a few yards across an inconvenient bend. Away theywent down stream, around a bend, out of sight."Mrs. Amelia S. Allen has sent me an interesting note on the feed-ing of a young ouzel. The mother ( ? ) "alighted near the youngbird and tried to place a fat insect in its beak. The baby droppedit. The mother picked it up, flew across to a dead branch that slopeddown to the water, dipped the insect into the water, then flew backto the youngster. Again he fumbled. The mother picked up theinsect again, flew across to the same branch, walked along it to theedge of the water, dipped the insect in and returned to the baby.At last the insect was swallowed."Fred Evenden, Jr., sends me the following note: "After a whileI moved in close again to the nest while both parents were gone.I remained motionless, but even then they detected me when theyreturned. The female returned alone and hopped around on a rockin midstream and then flew to the water's edge about 3 feet fromme. Then she went to the rock in midstream and gave what musthave be?n an alarm note, for almost immediately her mate cameupstream and they talked to each other and then both of them de-fiantly took it upon themselves to scold me. I left the spot for Ididn't want to keep them from bringing food to their young. Thisalarm note I mentioned went this way. Several short and high noteswith a rasping trill at the end. The female gave this call twice."Plumages.?I have not seen any small nestlings, but Mr. Steiger(1940) says that "from die first, the young Ouzel has a complete coatof down."This down becomes a necessary protection by the time that the youngbird takes its first plunge, at an early age, into the cold water.In the Juvenal plumage, the young bird is somewhat like the adult,but paler generally, and the under parts are suffused or mottled withvery pale buff or buffy white ; the chin and throat are mainly white
;
and the greater wing coverts are narrowly tipped with grayish white.This plumage is worn through the summer and into September ; I haveseen a bird in juvenal plumage as late as September 6. I don't knowhow extensive the postjuvenal molt is, but it evidently involves thecontour plumage at least.
DIPPER 103The first winter plumage of the young bird is similar to that of theadult, with perhaps a little more white on the underparts.Adults have a complete postnuptial molt in July and August ; I haveseen adults in fresh plumage as early as August 20. Kidgway (1904)says that fall and winter adults have the "feathers of nearly all underparts more or less distinctly (always narrowly) margined with whit-ish, the larger wing-coverts and tertials (sometimes also secondaries,innermost primaries, and rectrices) also narrowly margined at tipswith white, a narrow whitish mark on each eyelid, and the bill hornbrownish."Food.?The water ouzel obtains most of its food in, on, or under thewater of the streams on which it lives. It is very fond of the larvaeof the caddicefly, for which it probes around and under the small stoneson bottom ; there it also finds water-bugs, water-beetles, the larvae ofother insects, aquatic worms, and other forms of animal life that livein such places. John Muir (1894) writes attractively:He seems to be especially fond of the larvae of mosquitoes, found in abundanceattached to the bottom of smooth rock channels where the current is shallow.When feeding in such places he wades up-stream, and often while his head isunder water the swift current is deflected upward along the glossy curves of theneck and shoulders, in the form of a clear, crystalline shell, which fairly incloseshim like a bell-glass, the shell being broken and re-formed as he lifts and dips hishead ; while ever and anon he sidles out to where the too powerful current carrieshim off his feet ; then he dexterously rises on the wing and goes gleaning againin shallower places.Mayflies, caddiceflies, and other insects often drop into the pools, orthe quiet reaches of the stream, or are washed down over the water-falls ; under the waterfalls are favorite feeding places ; and, on the morequiet surfaces, the ouzel swims like a duck, using its feet as paddles,or flaps along the surface with the help of its wings, and picks up thefloating insects, if it can do so before the trout rise to snap them up.Under the overhanging banks, under logs, or under the shelter ofrocks and stones, where trout fry or other small fish are hiding, itseeks such finny prey. Often fish as much as 2 or 3 inches in lengthare captured, taken ashore, and killed by vigorous beating; some ofthese escape, and others, too big to swallow, are abandoned.In cold weather, or high up in the mountains, the dipper has beenseen to pick up frozen insects from the ice of lakes, or from snowbanksafter the manner of rosy finches. Junius Henderson (1927) makesthe surprising statement, on the authority of Prof. Aughey (1st Kep.U. S. Ent. Comm., 1878), that dippers "have been observed catchinglocusts" in Nebraska. J. A. Steiger (1940) .says that "at times theymake water cress and other aquatic flora part of their diet."Unfortunately for the dipper's welfare, it is too fond of the spawnand small fry of salmon and trout, and it is tempted to feed on themfreely when and where they are easily available. This habit has made
104 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMmany enemies for the dipper among sportsmen and especially amongthe managers of fi.sh hatcheries. The damage done to wild salmon andtrout by this bird is probably not serious under natural conditions, forthese fish are known to lay vastly more eggs than can ever hatch, manyeggs eaten by the dipper are known to be infertile, and vastly morefry are hatched than can possibly survive ; I have seen it estimated that,if all fish eggs hatched and the fry grew to maturity, the oceans wouldsoon be packed solid full of fish. Furthermore, the spawning groundsof both salmon and trout are mainly in waters not often frequentedby the dippers, as these birds live mainly on the rapid mountain streamsrather than on the slower valley streams and spawning grounds wherethey are rarely seen.Under the artificial conditions prevailing at fish hatcheries, it is adifferent story; here the dippers undoubtedly do considerable damage.J. A. Munro (1924) made a study of the relation of the dipper to fish-ing interests in British Columbia and Alberta ; I ofi'er a few quotationsfrom his report. The manager of the Skeena River hatchery offeredthe suggestion that "if naturally it eats a few salmon fry and ova, itwill balance this by eating ova and fry of the salmon enemies." TheBanff hatchery reported that "during the winter of 1921-22 not lessthan 10,000 advanced Cut-Throat trout fry were taken from the pondsand destroyed by these birds." In summing up all the evidence thathe gathered, Mr. Munro said that "it will be noted that little evidencehas been presented in reference to their consumption of sjoawn and thisis evidently not considered .serious by the fishery officials. * * * Thedestruction of fry is perhaps a more serious offence but we have littleevidence that this takes place to an alarming degree under natural con-ditions, the complaints having reference to the destruction of arti-ficially propagated fry after they have been placed in the retainingponds. It has been noted that these small fish swim continually alongthe shores of the ponds, seeking an outlet perhaps, and so fall an easyprey to Dippers, Kingfishers or other birds that may be attracted tothis bountiful supply of food. * * * The practice of shooting thesebirds in order to protect the fry has not had the desired effect," as newbirds come in to take the places of those that are shot. "The obviousremedy is to .screen the surface of retaining ponds with fine mesh wirenetting. This will adequately protect the fry and render it unneces-sary to destroy a song bird of high aesthetic value."A. Dawes DuBois writes to me : "Mr. Baigrie Sutherland, then forestranger in the Flathead National Forest for the district having itsranger station at Belton on the Middle Fork of the Flathead River,told me on the 24th of August, 1915, that he saw a water ouzel eatingfish offal which he had thrown into the edge of the water."Behavior.?It is indeed strange that a land bird, a song bird, andone so closely related to the wrens and the thrushes should adopt so
DIPPER 105many of the habits of the grebes and the ducks, for it is an expert diverand a good swimmer. Its feet are not webbed, of course, but its legsand toes are long, and its flexor muscles are very strong, enabling itto hold firmly to the rocks and stones against a strong current, to climbover the slippery rocks, or to swim fast enough for its purposes. Thewater ouzel is also well equipped otherwise for aquatic life, as pointedout by Grinnell and Storer (1924) :The covering of feathers on the body is thicker and denser than in either thethrushes or wrens, to which the dipper is closely related. Also, the ends of thefeathers are somewhat more loosely formed, as in many of the true water birds,and this seems to help in keeping the plumage from soaking up water. Each nos-tril is covered by a movable scale, obviously to exclude water when need be. Theoil gland at the upper base of the tail is about ten times as large in the dipper asin related land-dwelling birds of equivalent size, and the bird makes frequentuse of the product of the gland to dress its feathers. The stout but tapered formof the body, the short tail, the short rounded wings, and the stout legs and feetall would seem to be of advantage to a bird living along and in swiftly movingwaters.The flight of the ouzel cannot be better described than in the follow-ing quotations from Miiir's (1894) charming account:The Ouzel, born on the brink of the stream, or on a snag or boulder in the midstof it, seldom leaves it for a single moment. For, notwithstanding he is often onthe wing, he never flies overland, but whirs with rapid, quail-like beat above thestream, tracing all its windings. Even when the stream is quite small, say from5 to 10 feet wide, he seldom shortens his flight by crossing a bend, however abruptit may be ; and even when disturbed by meeting some one on the bank, he prefersto fly over one's head, to dodging out over the ground. * * *The vertical curves and angles of the most precipitous torrents he traces withthe same rigid fidelity, swooping down the inclines of the cascades, dropping sheerover dizzy falls amid the spray, and ascending with the same fearlessness andease, seldom seeking to lessen the steepness of the acclivity by beginning to ascendbefore reaching the base of the fall. No matter though it may be several hundredfeet in height he holds straight on, as if about to dash headlong into the throngof booming rockets, then darts abruptly upward, and, after alighting at the topof the precipice to rest a moment, proceeds to feed and sing. His flight is solidand impetuous, without any intermission of wing-beats,?one homogeneous buzzlike that of a laden bee on its way home.Mr. Skinner's (1922) account of its flight is only slightly different:
"Only once have I seen one away from water and then he was flyingover the quarter mile stretch between two streams. * * * Xheflight is direct and the wing beats are very rapid for 100 feet, thenthe Dipper coasts along 10 feet with the acquired momentum beforetaking up its wing strokes again. * * * ^ bird will come flyingdown one stream, turn an acute angle at the mouth of a second stream,and then go buzzing merrily up it after flying three times as far ratherthan cross the neck of land between the two streams."Dippers are solitary birds and are usually seen singly, rarely inpairs, except during the breeding season, and very rarely as many as
106 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthree or four together unless it be a group of parents and young. Muir(1894) once watched three of these birds
?
spending a winter morning in company, upon a small glacier lake, on the UpperMerced, about 7,500 feet above the level of the sea. * * * The portion of thelake bottom selected for a feeding-ground lies at a depth of 15 or 20 feet belowthe surface, and is covered with a short growth of algae and other aquatic plants,
?
facts I had previously determined while sailing over it on a raft. After alightingon the glassy surface, they occasionally indulged in a little play, chasing oneanother round about in small circles; then all three would suddenly dive together,and then come ashore and sing.The Ouzel seldom swims more than a few yards on the surface for, not beingweb-footed, he makes rather slow progress, but by means of his strong, crispwings he swims, or rather flies, with celerity under the surface, often toconsiderable distances. But it is in withstanding the force of heavy rapidsthat his strength of wing in this respect is most strikingly manifested.Dr. James A. Henshall (1901) , who had some good opportunities towatch ouzels in the clear waters of trout hatchery ponds, writes: "Ihave seen them plunge into the water, while flying, and continuetheir flight under the surface for the length of the pond. I have alsoseen them dive, like kingfishers, from the top of the drain boxes into thewater. Then again, I have observed them leave the shore and swimaway on the surface like so many ducklings."Opinions differ as to how long an ouzel can remain under water ; Ihave seen it stated as 10 seconds; Dr. A. H. Cordier (1927) notedone-half minute as the longest he had observed; Muir (1894) impliesthat it can remain under 2 or 3 minutes, but he probably made a wildguess at it
!
Some observers claim that ouzels do not use their wings in swimmingunder water, but most of them now seem to agree that they do ; certainlyit hardly seems reasonable to think that they could progress rapidlyenough or swim strongly enough with feet that are so poorly adaptedfor swimming. I believe that they not only can enter the water flyingbut also can come out of it flying.It seems strange that a bird that spends so much time in the waterand in flying spray should be in need of a bath, but Mr. Skinner (1922)has seen one plunging into the water with the evident purpose of bath-ing ; he has seen one stand in shallow water and flutter its wings in truebird-bath fashion ; and he says that "on early winter mornings, sun-baths are the regular thing. One cloudy morning I noted a Dipper dothe next best thing?warm himself and bask luxuriously in the steamfrom some cooled geyser water that was still much warmer than thekeen, winter air. While swimming on the water, a Dipper goes alongnodding his head quite like a miniature rail, or a coot. In many waysDippers suggest wrens. They are small and quick; they often perkup their short tails at a steep angle ; and they are forever exploringevery nook and cranny of their domain."
DIPPER 107The water ouzel usually alights on rocks or snags in the mountainstreams, but it has been known to alight occasionally in trees near itshabitat. Dr. C. Hart Merriam (1899) says: "One afternoon justbefore dark (6 o'clock) I was surprised to see an ouzel fly up into thedead top of a tree, light on a branch, and climb up several feet on thetrunk with his short tail hanging straight down, after the manner of awoodpecker."Late one afternoon, Mr. Ehinger (1930) found one of the birdssinging "at the foot of the steep bank where they had previously beenseen to disappear under the shelving sod and roots." This suggesteda nightly roosting place, and "a little careful investigation confirmedthis fact as two of the birds at dusk, retired under the cover and didnot reappear."Everyone who has seen a dipper must have noticed one of itscharacteristic habits, from which its name may have been derived.When perched on a rock or snag it is almost constantly dipping, nod-ding, or bobbing, or teetering. It has also been called the "teeterbird." But it is not really a teetering like that of the spotted sand-piper, nor is it really nodding, for there is no downward nod of thehead or up and down movement of the tail. It is a strictly verticalmovement of the whole hody^ accomplished by bending the long legs toa crouching position and then raising them to a high standing position
;
this produces a perpendicular movement of the body, up and down, fora distance of an inch or more, and is quite different from such move-ments in other birds. This dipping is rapid, often at the rate of from40 to 60 times a minute, or about once a second. Mr. Steiger (1940)suggests that, as the dipper "does not seem to have one consistent callnote for its mate," as the noise of rushing torrents often makes its voicedifficult to hear, and as its sombre coloring offers no very conspicuousrecognition mark, we may "interpret the dipping as an effective devicefor communication. This bobbing serves as a wig-wag, drawing theattention of the mate, or, when used by young, to draw the attentionof parent birds. The logic of this explanation finds support in twobehavior patterns. Flush the Dipper and you will note repeatedly thatupon alighting again the dipping will be more frequent. Each time thebird takes a new location, this increased dipping is striking. It is alsoclear that older birds do not resort to dipping so frequently as theyoung."Notwithstanding the fact that the dipper prefers to live in themountain solitudes, far from the haunts of man, it is a tame, confidingspecies, if not molested. It seems indifferent to our presence; if wesit quietly on a rock beside the stream, even one of its favorite perchingplaces, and do not move a muscle, it may alight beside us, gaze atus intently with its large, liquid eyes for a moment, and then flit awayto another rock and begin to sing; several observers have had such
108 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMan experience. John Muir (1894) saw one "cheerily singing withinreach of the flying chips" from a man that was chopping wood ona river bank. "On the lower reaches of the rivers where mills arebuilt, they sing on through the din of the machinery, and all the noisyconfusion of dogs, cattle, and workmen." This does not mean thatthe ouzel does not need protection, or that it can adapt itself to civili-zation, for it is slowly disappearing from some of its former hauntswhere its living conditions have been altered, and it may eventuallyfind a suitable habitat only in some national park or other protectedreservation,A striking habit of the water ouzel, which has caused considerablediscussion and difference of opinion, is the frequent winking of eitherthe nictitating membrane or the upper eyelid, which has a narrowborder of short, white feathers. Some contend that the wink is pro-duced by the membrane, and some say that it is the eyelid that pro-duces it. As a matter of fact, I believe that it may be produced byeither feature of the bird's anatomy at different times. Grinnell andStorer (1924) say: "The nictitating membrane or 'third eyelid' iswhitish in the Dipper, and, when drawn backward across the eye, asit is frequently when the bird is above the water, can be seen at aconsiderable distance. This membrane probably is drawn over theeyeball when the bird is working beneath the surface of the water."I cannot agree that this last assumption is correct; this membraneis translucent, but not transparent, and would probably impede ratherthan help the bird's vision where it would need it most; even theunaided human eye can see under water; and I doubt if the trainedeye of the dipper needs this protection.Mr. Ehinger (1930), "being at very close range noted particularlythe winking of the white-edged eyelids and the flash of the third lidor nictitating membrane. When the bird was facing me the winkingseemed simultaneous with both eyes; when but one eye was turnedtoward me the nictitating membrane seemed to flash out from differentportions of the eye and at times as though it came from the outercanthus."Dr. Cordier (1927) collected considerable evidence on this subject,to which the reader is referred, and made some thorough, close-upobservations, which seem to throw considerable light on the subject,and from which I quote as follows
:
My observations leading to these conclusions were made at a range of 4 feetto 18 inches from the bird, extending over several hours each day for severaldays. The winking in this bird was performed by the action of the nictitatingmembrane and not by the upper eyelid. The upper eyelid has a well definedwhite margin. From beneath this, the membrane was flashed in a downwarddirection in rather an oval shape, extending to the lower border of the cornea.The moving pictures show this membrane very distinctly. The movement isseen to come from above downward, nearhi the horizontal tmdth of the upper eye-
DIPPER 109
lid. When the bird was in the shadow of the nest cavity, with my eyes within 18inches of it, I could see the membrane very plainly as it frequently flashed acrossthe eye ball. * * * The true lids in most birds move up and down, the winkermoving horizontally. The Water Ouzel is an exception in so far as the move-ment of the winker [nictitating membrane] is nearly vertical. In no bird canthe upper eyelid be made to close and open with the speed of the nictitatingmembrane. According to the record made by the moving picture camera, thereare five frames, or individual pictures, impressed on the film at each flash ofthe membrane. This represents about one-third of a second to each wink.* * * On one occasion Mr. Sandahl pressed the button of the camera exactlyat the time the bird winked. This picture shows the extent of the membrane'saction from above downward. It also shows the membrane as an oval cover-ing of the eye and not a straight line as would be the case if made by the uppereyelid.The membrane is called into action to clear the cornea of the watery mistwhile the bird is near the spray and splashes of falls and rapids. This wasbeautifully illustrated while the female was in the nest brooding. The flashesof the membrane could plainly be seen. The spray from the nearby falls, withthe changing air currents could be seen to enter the nest and with each gust ofmoistened air, the membrane was called into action with increased vigor tobrush aside the watery vapors from the cornea. This was performed independ-ently of the white margined upper eyelid. The slow eyelid action is in partcontrolled by volition ; the quick action of the membrane is brought about by anunconscious reflex demand.Each pair of ouzels establishes and defends a definite territory onits home stream, from which trespassing ouzels are driven. As a rule,such territorial rights are respected, but sometimes the invading birdis attacked and forced to retire. During the nesting season and whenbroods of young have to be fed, such territories are quite extensiveand the nests are placed a mile or more apart ; Dr. Cordier thought itunusual to find two nests within a mile. But when winter closes someof the upper reaches of the mountain streams, the birds have to be-come more concentrated at lower levels, and perhaps half a dozen birdsmay be found within a mile or two. Dawson (1923) mentions find-ing as many as 37 within a distance of two miles. Even then, thoughthe territories are shorter, they seem to be fairly well maintained.Voice.?The water ouzel is a beautiful singer, singing persistentlyand almost constantly during most of the year and in all kinds ofweather. The song period is at its lowest ebb during the molting andlow-water period in August and September, but as soon as wintersnows have begun to replenish the mountain streams, early in winter,it begins to build up and the flood tide of joyous music is reachedearly in spring, mingling with the roar of rushing torrents, andgenerally to be heard above the music of the cascades. John Muir(1894) pays the following glowing tribute to the song of the ouzel:As soon as the winter clouds have bloomed, and the mountain treasuries are oncemore replenished with snow, the voices of the streams and ouzels increase instrength and richness until the flood season of early summer. Then the tor-rents chant their noblest anthems, and then is the flood-time of our songster's
110 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
melody. As for weather, dark days and sun days are the same to him. * * *Indeed no storm can be more violent than those of the waterfalls in the midstof which he delights to dwell. However dark and boisterous the weather, snow-ing, blowing, or cloudy, all the same he sings, and with never a note of sadness.No need of spring sunshine to tliaw his song, for it never freezes. Never shallyou hear anything wintery from his warm breast ; no pinched cheeping, nowavering notes between sorrow and joy ; his mellow, fluty voice is ever tunedto downright gladness, as free from dejection as cock-crowing. * * *What may be regarded as the separate songs of the Ouzel are exceedingly dif-ficult of description, because they are so variable and at the same time so con-fluent. * * * Nearly all of his music is sweet and tender, lapsing from hisround breast like water over the smooth lip of a pool, then breaking farther oninto a sparkling foam of melodious notes, which glow with subdued enthusiasm,yet without expressing much of the strong, gushing ecstasy of the bobolink orskylark.The more striking strains are perfect arabesques of melody, composed of afew full, round, mellow notes, embroidered with delicate trills which fade andmelt in long slender cadences. In a general way his music is that of thesti'eams refined and spiritualized. The deep booming notes of the falls arein it, the thrills of rapids, the gurgling of margin eddies, the low whispering oflevel reaches, and the sweet tinkle of separate drops oozing from the ends ofmosses and falling into tranquil pools.After the above beautiful words of worshipful praise, it seemsalmost a sacrilege to say anything more about the voice of the ouzel,but a few call notes, not included in Muir's account, are worth men-tioning. An alarm note, a sharp jigic^ j^9^c^ is mentioned by Ehinger(1930) and by others. Grinnell and Storer (1924) write: "The callnote is short and rather burred, uttered singly when the dipper is
'jouncing' on a rock, or given in rapid series when the bird takes toflight. One of our renderings of it is sit, sit, sit, * * * ? anotherbseet, or extended to hs-se-se-se-se-se-et. It is quite different in char-acter from the song, and resembles in general character the call noteof the caiion wren." Claude T. Barnes writes to me that one he waswatching "flew to a wet stone and uttered a single note, cheep, but ina few seconds more it flew upstream uttering a chatter like cheep a laJa la, the characteristic notes of the species when flying along a brook.''He also mentions a protesting chatter, "which sounded like ching,ching, ching, ching, ching, ching, uttered more rapidly than I couldcount the notes and with a thin, tinkle-like sound, as of a large fishingreel clicking. I could hear it distinctly above the roar of the fall. Thenote was repeated six times in each song or scold, whatever it was."Mr. Ratlibun tells me that "under favorable conditions many of thenotes of this bird's song carry a long distance. On quiet mornings andwhen the lake was calm, more than once I heard the song comingfrom the far side of the lake which was more than a mile away."Enemies.?Mr. Steiger (1940) writes:Its natural enemies are ?uany. The water snake, mink, marten, the skunk,weasel and other stream-frequenting animals continuously prey upon the mother
DIPPER 111
and young. Since they build tlieir nests on the ground they are endangered bymore predators than are the tree nesters.Natural selection has developed a remarkable protection for the femaleDipper and her brood. During the nesting period and while the young remaindependent, they give no body odor. As most ground-traveling predatory animalsdepend primarily upon their keen sense of smell, they are in this way effectivelydisarmed. The survival struggle has made the Dipper's enemies expert hunters,and they acquire an uncanny knowledge of the birds' habits ; thus, though pro-tected in this way, destruction is an ever present menace.The pollution of the streams by refuse from mills and by drainageis doubtless destroying some of the dipper's food supply, and drivingthem farther and farther back into the mountains. Some are drivenout by too congested settlements, and many hundreds of them are shotat fish hatcheries. They are too much beloved, as cheerful companiesalong the lonely brooks, to be molested by the trappers and the appre-ciative anglers.Fall.?Fred M. Packard tells me that, in Estes Park, Colo., "theadults and fledglings remain at the higher altitudes until September
;
then most of them begin to descend into the lower zones for winter.Stragglers migrate as the upper waters freeze, and some will winterin the park, if the larger streams remain partly free of ice."Winter.?The dipper is a hardy mountaineer, indifferent to cold andimpervious to it. His thick, downy underwear and his coat of densefeathers keep the cold out and the heat in. He lives all winter as farnorth, or as high up in the mountains, as he can find any open water.And he sings as freely perched on a cake of ice, or in an icy cavern alongthe shore, as he does from a rock in his summer haunts. Dr. Nelson(1887) had several brought to him "in midwinter from the head ofNorton Sound, during a cold period when the thermometer registeredas low as ?50? at Saint Michaels, and they must frequently endure atemperature of ?60?, or even lower, since in the interior the cold isalmost invariably much more severe than along the coast. On theUpper Yukon it is also a resident, whence the fur traders brought mewintering specimens."Farther south the dippers are forced to retire from the higher partsof the mountains, as the streams freeze and are covered with snow;then they become more crowded on the lower reaches of the streams orrivers, or resort to the shores of open lakes. At that season they oftenwander even beyond the foothills. Frank L. Farley, of Camrose,Alberta, tells me that he has "several records of its appearance on rapidcreeks in the ranching country west of Innisfail, at least 50 milesdistant from the Rockies." And Laurence B. Potter, of Eastend,Saskatchewan, writes me that he has sight records of the dipper "on theswift flowing creeks that form the headwaters of the FrenchmanRiver."
112 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMA fitting closing is this winter picture, drawn by Muir's (1894)matchless pen
:
One mild winter morning, when Tosemite Valley was swept its length from westto east by a cordial snowstorm, I sallied forth to see what I might learn and enjoy.A sort of gray, gloaming-lilje darkness filled the valley, the huge walls were out ofsight, all ordinary sounds were smothered, and even the loudest booming of thefalls was at times buried beneath the roar of the heavy-laden blast. The loosesnow was already over five feet deep on the meadows, making extended walksimpossible without the aid of suowshoes. I found no great difficulty, however, inmaking my way to a certain ripple on the river where one of my ouzels lived. Hewas at home, busily gleaning his breakfast among the pebbles of a shallow portionof the margin, apparently unaware of anything extraordinary in the weather.Presently he flew out to a stone against which the icy current was beating, andturning his back to the wind, sang as delightfully as a lark in springtime.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Alaska to Guatemala ; nonmigratory.The dipper is found north to northern Alaska (Kobuk KiverValley, tributaries of the upper Atlatna River, and Eagle) ; centralYukon (Forty-mile, Ogilvie Range, and the forks of the MacmillanRiver) ; northern British Columbia (Atlin and Fort Halkett) ; Alberta(Athabaska River, about 150 miles northwest of Stony Plain, andEdmonton). East to Alberta (Edmonton and Calgary); Montana(Glacier Park, Belt Mountains, and Bozeman) ; Wyoming (Wolf,Sundance, and Laramie Mountains) ; South Dakota (Black Hills) ;Colorado (Gold Hill, Golden, Manitou, and Wet Mountains) ; NewMexico (Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Taos, and Ruidoso) ; Chihuahua(Cerro Prieto) ; alpine region of Veracruz (Jalapa and Rio Blanco)
;
Puebla (Mount Popocatepetl) ; Oaxaca (Oaxaca) ; and Guatemala(San Mateo, Los Arcos, and Tecpam). South to Guatemala (Ton-tonicopam and Tecpam). West to Guatemala (Tecpam and Bar-rillas) ; Oaxaca (Oaxaca) ; Mexico (Temascaltepec) ; Chihuahua(Pinos Altos, Chuhuichupa, and Pacheco) ; Arizona (HuachucaMountains, Santa Catalina Mountains, Salt River Wildlife Refuge,Oak Creek, and Grand Canyon) ; the Coast Range in California (SanDiego County, Carpenteria, San Francisco Bay region, and HoopaValley, Humboldt County) ; Oregon (Trail and Tillamook Bay)Washington (Vancouver, Olympic Mountains, and Bellingham) ;British Columbia (Vancouver Island and Graham Island, QueenCharlotte Islands) ; and Alaska (Sitka, Kodiak Island, UnalaskaIsland, Nunivak Island, and Kobuk River).The range as outlined applies to the entire species, which has beendivided into three subspecies or geographic races. The typical race,the Mexican dipper {G. m. mexwanus)^ occurs from the HuachucaMountains in Arizona to southern Mexico ; the dipper ( C, m. unicolor)
MEXICAN DIPPER 113
is found in Alaska, Canada, and the United States ; the third race isfound in Guatemala.Casual records.?An individual was watched closely in May 1891,on the Wliite Kiver, Sioux County, Nebr. ; and a specimen was collectedJune 2, 1903, at Wauneta, Chase County, Nebr.Egg dates.?Alberta : 8 records, April 14 to June 28.California : 30 records, March 23 to June 26 ; 16 records, April 18to May 20, indicating the height of the season.Colorado : 20 records, April 4 to June 10 ; 10 records, May 9 to May31.Oregon : 6 records, April 18 to June 7.CINCLUS MEXICANUS MEXICANUS SwainsonMEXICAN DIPPERDiscovery in the Field Museum in Chicago by Emmet R. Blake(1942) of a specimen of this type race of the species, collected byGeorge F. Breninger in the Huachuca Mountains, Ariz., on May 28,1903, entitles this form to a place on our list. Until recently ourNorth American form, G. in. vmicolor^ was supposed to extend its rangein the mountains of California, Arizona, and New Mexico approxi-mately to the Mexican border. Evidently these, and other extremesouthern mountain ranges, have also attracted several other Mexicanforms, as they lie close to the border and have formed a natural path-way into the United States.The Mexican dipper is darker than our more northern bird; itshead and neck are deep sepia brown, whereas in our northern birdthe head and neck are more grayish brown, and the whole plumageis paler. Family TROGLODYTIDAE : WrensTROGLODYTES AfiDON AEDON VieillotEASTERN HOUSE WRENPlates 25-27CONTElBtJTED BY ALFRED OtTO GROSSHABITSThere are two recognized forms of the house wren, the eastern,Troglodytes dedon aedon^ and the western. Troglodytes aedon park-manii. Oberholser (1934) in a revision of the North American wrenshas adopted Wilson's name domestica because it "seems" to antedateVieillot's name aedon by which the bird has long been known. Theless rufescent birds inhabiting the region from Michigan, Indiana,Kentucky to West Virginia, western Pennsylvania, western New York,
114 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMand Quebec and occurring as a migrant farther east are describedas a new form with the name Troglodytes domestica baJdioini. Forthe present at least it seems best to adhere to the nomenclature ofthe 1931 A. O. U. Check-list. As far as this life history account isconcerned the subsi:)ecies are of minor consequence, and what is gener-ally true of one will also apply to the other subspecies.One of the earliest recollections I have of birds is a pair of energeticlittle house wrens that built in a rustic box placed inside an openporch of our Illinois home. These little brown birds (unknown byname to me at that time) had an intriguing fascination, with theirconstant going and coming with flitting upcocked tails, their innumer-able visits to the nest with food to satisfy their clamoring young,their chattering vibrant songs, and their saucy scoldings when I ven-tured too near; all those early experiences have left indelible andpleasurable memories. For similar reasons the house wren has gainedcountless human friends who cherish the presence of these birds astenants about their homes.Unfortunately, individual house wrens, especially those inhabitingpopulated areas, have displayed too mucli aggression for Lehensraumin their relations to other birds. This Nazi trait has brought theminto disfavor by persons who now hold a strong prejudice againstthis attractive and useful bird.The house wren because of its depredations on the nests, eggs, andyoung of other birds has been hailed into court where notable witnessesboth for and against his character have^ taken the stand. The con-troversy raged during the twenties as evidenced by the numerousarticles and communications published in the ornithological journals.Sherman (1925) in a spirited article, "Down with the House WrenBoxes," took a venomous stand against the wren. She reviews atlength the statements made by numerous observers, of the destructivetendencies of the house wren especially toward those species thatcome into direct competition with it, through their nesting in thesame environment. Miss Sherman's paper stimulated the writing ofmany of the articles for and against the wren that followed.Chapman (1925) in an editorial on the wren controversy stated inpart as follows:The day that I returned from Florida I found the House Wren here to greetme. * * * The bubbling music which springs so uncontrollably from hisquivering throat is too characteristic a part of the season's chorus to be spared.The box which has been hanging so patiently on my grape arbor would be buta sad reminder of past joys if it should not again be animated by his bustlinglittle body.Tried in a court of men and he no doubt would be convicted of the chargesmade against him ; but a court of Wrens would dismiss the case and commendthe culprit. Purely as a matter of justice which verdict should we take?
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 115Should we judge Wrens by their standards or by ours? That we may insistthat they conform to our standards is quite a different matter. * * *The so-called nature-lover who talies his own standards, personal likes anddislikes afield with him, is apt to find quite as much to condemn in animal,as in human life. Nature attracts us primarily because she is natural. It isthe wild not the tame animal which appeals to us; and we want it to exhibitthe traits which have v/on for it a place among competitors. * *The House Wren has become abundant with our help and through the exer-cise of the instincts which have made it a successful species. But is there anyreason why we should call him a criminal? As a matter of fact we are theguilty ones. Inspired by the best of motives and encouraged by those in authority,in an excess of zeal we have embarked on a campaign in the behalf of hole-nesting birds without perhaps stopping to think just where it will lead us.McAtee (1926b) reviewed the evidence from the standpoint of aneconomic ornithologist in his article "Judgment on the House Wren."He writes in part as follows
:
Recently the relations of the House Wren to other birds have been fully discussedin our ornithological journals. The Wren has had its supporters as well asdefamers, but few on either side have taken a justicial view of the controversy.The evidence that House Wrens sometimes destroy the eggs and otherwiseinterfere with the nesting of other birds is indisputable, but it is not so positivelyrealized that this is only one of the factors we must take into considerationin forming a judgment (in the technical sense of the term) on the economicvalue of the species.Many birds are so free from special vices or virtues that their economic statusis decided upon the basis of their food-habits alone. Were this true of theHouse Wren, the species would receive a very high appraisal, for it is almostexclusively insectivorous, and that, too, in chiefly commendable directions. * * *The House Wren is as worthy of approbation as any of our birds on the scoreof its food-habits. It has a better rank in this respect than most of the specieswhose eggs it occasionally destroys. Egg- and nest-destruction by the Wren isof local, not general, occurrence and the remedy should be local. It is simpleto eliminate bird-houses that only Wrens can use, a measure to be applied inplaces whei'e serious depredations have been noted, or to close temporarily, orreduce in number, houses that have proved bases for sporadic marauding. Mostproblems in economic ornithology resolve themselves into local irregularitiesof bird-behavior, and the wisest treatment in almost every case proves to bethat adapted both in kind and degree to local needs.The relations of the house wren to other birds make him a muchmore interesting even though it be a less desirable personality. Hisaggressions toward other birds have not been recently acquired butconstitute an old and well-established trait. His behavior is evidenceof his superior intelligence in the battle of the survival of the fittest.He is activated to secure and dominate a definite area during tlie repro-ductive season for the sake of his own preservation. For this reasonthis small enterprising midget making his way in the world oftenagainst superior odds deserves our respect rather than our condemna-tion. If man upsets the balance of nature by his interference, forexample by erecting too many nesting boxes, then man alone is toblame for the conditions which prevail in certain localities.
116 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSpring.?The first arrivals of the house wren make their appearancealong the southern limits of the breeding range during the latter partof March, but it is not until the middle of April that tliey becomecommon. Certain individuals remain on the southernmost winteringgrounds until the second week of April. In Florida a series of 8years of records of birds last seen in the spring range from April12 to April 22, an average date of April 17. The first house wrensarrive in New England and a corresponding latitude in the Midwestduring the last week of April or early in May, but it is not untilthe middle of the month that the nesting activities are in full swing.At Hillcrest, Ohio, according to Kendeigh (1941) , who made observa-tions on the time for beginning of the nesting activities of 186 malesand 165 females, "The median date for all the males to begin nestingactivities is May 11, altliough the median date for the first maleactivity is May 1, and for the Za^^esiJ male to begin activity * * * jgJune 22. Females average later, the corresponding three dates beingMay 20, May 11, and July 1." Kendeigh continues:Although first-year birds may be among the first to arrive in late April andearly May, adults of two or more years of age make up a far greater percentageof the migratory population at this time than they do later in the season. Femalesarrive about 9 days later than the males.Adult males that have previously nested almost invariably return to the sameterritory that they formerly occupied, or they establish a new territory adjacentto it. The return of adult females to their former nesting areas is almost asregular.With young birds hatched the preceding season, there is a marked tendency toscatter in all directions, although they occur in greatest relative numbers in thevicinity where they were hatched.TerHtory.?As soon as the male appears on the breeding groundhis arrival is announced by the territory song. The male isolateshimself and establishes himself in a definite area. Territory is im-portant as a means by which birds become paired and mated and aninsurance for adequate nesting sites and food supply. According toKendeigh (1941)?the process of courtship and mating can scarcely be separated in the housewren from the phenomena of territory, as they are so vitally interwoven andintrinsically related.Territory is established and defended chiefly by song. * * * The "territorysong" of the house wren is but little different from the "nesting song," and bothsongs announce to other birds that the territory is occupied. [The territory songis also an advertisement of the male's presence to females, and of inducementto the female to enter a particular male's territory in preference to the territoryof some other male.]The presence of a female is a distinct incentive to song. The male will givehis territory song over and over again, day after day, in a purely mechanicalmanner until a female comes into view. Not really until then does he showemotional excitement. The song is given more energetically, the mating songis interspersed and males from adjoining territory may tune in. Competition
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 117between two males in adjoining territories becomes most vigorous when anunattached female enters the area. * * * The male whose song is most stimu-lating to her ears would seem to have the advantage.In addition to song, territories are also defended by the wren'sassuming threatening postures sometimes accompanied with scolding,chasing, or physical combat.Kendeigh says
:
In the establishment of nest-sites, house wrens may destroy the nests, eggs,or young of the same or diffei'ent species, or even the adult birds. Although thereis considerable individual variation in this aggressive behavior, it tends to bemost intense during years when the total house wren population on the area ishighest. * * *Territories in the Hillcrest area average 1.0 acre * * * j^ si^e. * * *The size of the territory varies inversely with the size of the house wren popu-lation and does not exert a limiting influence on the total numbers of the speciesin the area until it approaches the minimum compressible limit. The adult birdsrestrict their intensive daily activity to limited parts of the territory but eventu-ally cover the entire area. * * *The successful mating of two birds of opposite sex appears to depend on theirphysiological and psychological readiness, their ability to stimulate each othersexually, the location and character of the teri-itory [and] nest-site togetherwith the nest foundation begun by the male, and finally their freedom from otheractivities.Territory is maintained throughout each breeding period and breeding season,although there may be some decrease in activity as nesting progresses. Thiscontinuance of territory may be correlated with the tendency toward polygamymanifest in the male, with the use of the same territory for later matings, and itmay also involve the need for a constant and readily available source of foodand for freedom from annoying intruders. Primarily, however, the territorial be-havior is most closely linked with the acquiring of a first mate. There is noevidence that territory is maintained at any other than the breeding season ofthe year.Courtship.?^With the arrival of the female an ardent courtshipbegins. They have an extensive repertoire of songs and call notes,which are used for various occasions and for purposes of intercom-munication. Both males and females have a habit of quivering theirwings when excited, which is most pronounced during the matingprocess but is evident also when the birds are disturbed or scolding.The position of the male's tail is also a good indicator of the degreeof his excitement. During ordinary singing it is kept lowered, butwhen his courtship song is intensified, or at times when he is scolding,the tail is tilted upward. During copulation it is vertical or tiltedforward at an acute angle.Much excitement is manifested during the inspection of availablenesting sites, some of which have already been selected and partiallyfilled with sticks by the male. The female has opinions of her ownresulting in violent domestic controversies that intersperse theirpassionate courtship antics. The female may refuse the nest proffered758066?48 9
118 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMby the male ; sometimes she may accept the nesting box but disapprov-ing of the nesting material or the way it was arranged by the maleproceeds to throw it out stick by stick. Both birds do their part in thebuilding of the final nest, but the male spends more time singing andguarding the nesting territory.After the female is busily engaged with her incubation duties theactivities of the male are less important since all he does is to singrather mechanically. Occasionally he spends his time carrying sticksinto some nearby box in the pretense of building a new nest, and whiledoing so he sings his courtship song. In fact, the building of the extranest has been thought to be one of the manifestations of his peculiarcourtship. While so employed he often acquires a second mate whilethe first is still busy with household duties.Nesting.?The house wren stands out preeminently as one of themost eccentric of our birds in the choice of its nesting site. In fact, itschoice of a nesting place exhibits such extreme variation that it isdifficult to select one that can be considered typical.The primitive environment of the house wren was the woodlands andits nesting site the natural cavity of some tree or stump. The nest isseldom exposed, but generally the requirements of the wren demand anenclosure that conceals the nest on all sides except the point of en-trance. These birds have readily adapted themselves to the environ-ment of man reaching a state of semidomesticity. They have availedthemselves of houses constructed for their special use or lacking thesethey have built their nests in various contraptions incidentally pro-vided either inside or outside of buildings. They are not particular andare just as apt to accept an old rusty can in a garbage heap as they are aneatly painted house set in the midst of a beautiful flower garden.Innumerable curious nesting places have been reported, a few ofwhich will serve to illustrate their infinite variety. At a sanctuarylocated on Wallops Island, Va., 24 empty cow skulls found bleaching onthe island were hung up or lodged in the trees and shrubbery. Almostimmediately 23 of the gruesome skulls were occupied by house wrens,who were quick to accept these unusual nesting boxes (Forbush, 1916)
.
There are several instances where house wrens have built their nestsinside the large paper nests of hornets or wasps that were attached toprivate or public buildings. Before adding nesting materials theinterior of the insect nests were excavated by the industrious birds.This relationship between wrens and wasps was reversed in one instanceas illustrated by a photograph taken by R. E. Hart (1941) on thecampus of Keuka College, New York. A wren house was taken overby a swarm of wasps and was completely covered except for a smallpart of the roof, with successive layers of paper layed down bythe insects.It is not uncommon for the wren to make use of the nests of other
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 119birds. At Loring, Va., a pair of wrens built in a deserted barn swal-low's nest. At Laanna, Pike County, Pa., Burleigh (1927) writes ofa nest containing seven eggs which was in a robin's nest on a ledge abovea pillar of a porch. Here the cavity had been deepened and a fewtwigs and feathers added, but these were not noticeable a short distanceaway. He found another nest in a barn swallow's nest lodged againsta beam in the roof of a barn. Here again the cavity had been deep-ened and a few twigs and feathers added. Both nests were new andapparently had been appropriated from the rightful owners. Angus(1934) reports finding five young wrens in a phoebe's nest under abridge, and in this case no nesting material had been added by thewrens. Wilbur F. Smith (1911a) relates a strange partnership inwhich wrens and English sparrows built a nest in a bird house, thesparrows starting first. Both the sparrow and wren layed eggs thatwere incubated by the English sparrow. Though wrens are ordinarilyantagonistic toward bluebirds and tree swallows, they have been knownto occupy different compartments of the same martin house and existin apparent harmony.Not only do wrens occupy nests of other birds built in boxes or nat-ural cavities or those in the protection of buildings but also they haveappropriated nests built in open situations. Schwab (1899) writes ofa pair of wrens that occupied the deserted nest of a Baltimore oriolehung 20 feet from the ground in one of the outermost branches of alarge sugar-maple tree. Two other cases of wrens occupying oriolenests have come to my attention ; hence the above case is not imique.At Bay of Erie, Pa., a pair of wrens departed greatly from their nestingenviroimient when they selected a kingfisher's nesting hole in a sandbank. This nest contained young when discovered (Semiett, 1889).Still another unusual nesting site in relation to other birds was that ofa pair of wrens which built in the deeper interstices of an osprey's nestlocated on Plum Island, N. Y. (C. S. Allen, 1892)
.
Other interesting nesting sites of the house wren have been in afish creel or watering pot hung on the side of a shed or fence, rustytin cans in garbage piles, old threshing machines and other fannmachinery, in tin cans, teapots, and flowerpots left on shelves ofsheds, in a soap dish, in old boots and shoes, and even in a bag offeathers. Outdoors they have been known to nest in the nozzle ormain part of pumps, in the hat or pockets of a scarecrow, in an ironpipe railing, in a weathervane, in holes in a brick wall or building, and-in a coat hung up at a camp site. One pair of wrens built their neston the rear axle of an automobile which was used daily. When thecar was driven the wrens went along. Even under these most un-usual circumstances the eggs were successfully hatched (Northcutt,1937).The individual wrens have one trait in common in that these ener-
120 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMgetic creatures strive to fill the container they select with nesting ma-terial. Regardless of its size it is usually well filled except for a nar-row passageway leading to the comparatively small nesting cavitythat contains the eggs or young. This trait is probably one that hasdeveloped through the protection the birds derive by keeping out cer-tain intruders. This fact is often considered in the construction ofwren nesting boxes by cutting an entrance large enough to admit thetiny body of the wren but too small to admit the passage of competi-tors the size of an English sparrow or a starling.The bulk of a house wren's nest is generally composed of relativelylong and coarse twigs and sticks and grass. According to Godard(1915) if the wrens are given a choice of dry and green sticks theyselect the dry dead sticks and reject the green ones. The nesting cavityis usually lined with finer and softer materials such as feathers, hair,wool, spider cocoons, and catkins.McAtee (1940a) analyzed the materials in 33 complete or partialnests found at the Bureau of Plant Industry Experiment Station lo-cated near Glen Dale, Md. His report is as follows
:
Foundations included (in the number of nests indicated) : twigs (33),feathers (16), chestnut spikes (13), wool (12), leaves (7), cord (6), and weedstalks (5). Materials used in fewer instances were: rootlets, red-cedar bark,cotton, grass, chestnut shell, paper, a large fragment of snail shell, exoskeletonsof milleped and sowbug, and a spider cocoon. The twigs were characteristi-cally coarse and included some up to 8 inches in length and a few that werebranched. Rose twigs with plentiful thorns were frequently employed, and ina few cases callow young were raised in such nests with little or no cushioning toprotect them from the spines. The twig bases of nests were often from 4 to 6inches deep. Flecks of wool and cotton were scattered through the twig basesto no conceivable purpose. The lining of the 33 nests included grass in 19 cases,hair, chiefly horsehair, in 16, feathers in 13, and rootlets in six. Other itemswere red-cedar bark, chestnut spikes, weed stalks, and grass. The material inone nest, loosened up in the process of analysis, filled a 2-gallon bucket.The house wren may use other than the traditional nesting materials.Mrs. Gilbert Drake (1931) describes a nest built in a chicken house inWest Park, N. Y., that consisted largely of small pieces of rustedchicken wire. A nest observed by Helen P. Williams ( 1931) was madeup entirely of metal consisting of rusty bent nails, double-pointedtacks, and pieces of wire. An analysis made of a nest found at Ames,Iowa, by Harriet C. Battell (1925) was made up of the following rub-bish : "52 hairpins, 68 nails (large) , 120 small nails, 4 tacks, 13 staples,* * * 10 pins, 4 pieces of pencil lead, 11 safety pins, 6 paper fasten-ers, 52 wires, * * * i buckle, 2 hooks, 3 garter fasteners, and 2odds and ends." Goelitz (1918) reports finding a nest made upentirely of rusted pieces of wire. In fall a tangle of rusted chickenwire was thrown behind a shed, and the following spring a pair ofhouse wrens in search of nesting material found that the wire would
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 121break easily into pieces just suited for the purpose. The birds usedthis wire to the practical exclusion of all other usual materials.The house wren has the habit of frequently building dummy orextra nests, a trait common to other members of the wren family.Many of these nests are built by the male prior to the arrival of thefemale in the spring, but a mated male may use its superfluous energyin building extra nests in the neighborhood of the one where his mateis incubating the eggs. Even if a male is unsuccessful in obtaining amate, he may continue to build several nests during the course of theseason. The nests built by the male are crude structures, and it isprobable that some of the curious nests made of rusted wire nails andother metallic material previously described are to be attributed tothe work of the male. In central IlKnois I observed both membersof a pair of wrens build three complete nests in different boxes beforeselecting one for final occupancy.Mrs. Daisy Dill Norton (Forbush, 1929), of Lewiston, Maine, re-ports a case in which an unmated female built a nest in a bluebirdhouse. It went througli all the manifestations of a maternal wrenwith a family in prospect. She allowed no birds on her house or nearthe nest and was ready to do battle with anything that appeared re-gardless of size. The wren remained until the end of August, and inall this time Mrs. Norton never saw another wren, nor did she hear thesong of the male. After the wren left, the box was taken down, andinside was found an exquisitely built nest containing 12 (sterile)eggs. From these observations it is apparent that the nesting instinctis strongly developed in both the male and female house wren.One cannot watch a pair of wrens in their repeated attempts toget long unwieldy sticks through a narrow box entrance scarcelylarge enough to admit their tiny bodies without being greatly im-pressed by their dogged persistence, energy, and skill. At first thewren, especially if it is a young individual, may attempt to enter anesting hole with the beak grasped at the center of a long twig, butvery quickly through trial and error it learns to thrust one end of thestick through the opening and then to inch it along with the beak untilwell inside the nesting box. After the technique is mastered it isnot unusual for them to add four or five such sticks during the courseof a minute. In a single day they may accumulate a mass of sticksseveral inches in depth, and in 2 or 3 days the entire structure is com-pleted and ready to receive the eggs.Eggs.?The number of eggs in complete sets varies from 5 to 12,but the range in numbers is usually 6 to 8 in the vast majority of nests.Harlow (1918) in reporting on 47 nests of the house wren found inNew Jersey and Pennsylvania states that the average set was 6 or 7eggs, but in his series there was a range from 5 to 8 eggs in complete
122 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
sets. Baldwin (Baldwin and Bowen, 1928) found that of 21 pairsthat had two broods that he had under observation, the average was6 eggs for the first and 5.5 eggs for the second brood. Of 19 pairsknown to have but one brood the average number of eggs laid was6.3 per female.Birds may be classed as determinate with respect to egg productionwhen they lay a definite number of eggs in a set and indeterminatewhen they can be induced to continue laying by egg removal. Cole(1930) found that if eggs, presumably from the same female housewren, were removed daily, the bird layed an unusually large number ofeggs. Detailed measurements he made revealed that the length of theeggs increased in general to a certain point, then rested, then increasedto a second high point, then rested, and for a third time increased toa high point ; following this there was a downward trend. Thus thereappeared to be four cycles, separated by rest periods. It is suggestedthat the process of incubation may react on endocrine glands to causecessation of egg production.The eggs vary from short-rounded-ovate to oval in shape. Theground color is white, usually with a vinaceous tinge. They arethickly speckled with minute dots of brownish red or cinnamon-brown,which are often so dense as to conceal the ground color giving theentire egg a uniform salmon-colored or reddish-brown cast. Thecolor is deepest at the rounded end, and in many eggs there is a wreathof spots concentrated around this end of the egg. The eggs vary intheir long diameter from 0.58 to 0.70 inch and in their short diameterfrom 0.46 to 0.53 inch. The average dimensions of 100 eggs are0.64 by 0.50 inch. The measurements of 50 eggs in the United StatesNational Museum averaged 16.4 by 12.7 millimeters ; the eggs showingthe four extremes measure 18.3 by 13.2, 15.8 by 15.5, 14.7 by 12,2, and16.3 by 11.7 millimeters.The house wren has two distinct breeding periods. The first, ac-cording to Kendeigh (1940) , who has made very extensive observationsat the Baldwin Bird Research Laboratory, Cleveland, Ohio, begins inthe middle of May and lasts until the end of June ; the second beginslate in June and lasts to the middle of August. Egg-laying occursmost regularly during the first 2 weeks of each period, but occasionalsets may be deposited at any time. One egg is laid each day during theegg laying period until the full complement of eggs is completed.Certain observers have credited the house wren with as many as threebroods in a season, but these cases are unusual, and it is extremelydoubtful whether three broods are ever successfully reared.Young.?The incubation period of the house wren is 13 days. Theegg temperatures in the nest of the house wren according to Kendeighfluctuate between 33.9? C. and 36.9? C. The temperature of 35? C.may be considered the temperature at which incubation to hatching is
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 123normally accomplished in 13 days. Based on the rate of gaseous ex-change the most favorable incubation temperature for rapid develop-ment falls between 35? and 37.8? C. On the basis of Kendeigh's com-putations, if we take into account the total amount of oxygen absorbedand assume the respiratory quotient to be 0.72, development at a con-trolled temperature of 37.8? C. would require only ten days, whileat 32.2? C. it would require 18 days. Temperature is an importantfactor in determining the length of incubation. Reports by differentobservers present a variation in the length of the incubation periodfrom 11 to 15 days, but this discrepancy can be explained in partthrough the lack of proper consideration in the factors involved andespecially through the lack of accurate determination when incubationactually starts.Baldwin and Kendeigh (1927) made a detailed study of the be-havior of nesting house wrens, including their attentiveness and in-attentiveness. Their information was obtained by direct observationsand from continuous records secured by the use of special apparatusinvolving the principle of thermoelectricity to determine the presenceor absence of the birds from the nest. It seems desirable to quote theirstatements at considerable length.The differentiation between the periods of attentiveness when the bird is actu-ally engaged in nesting activities and the periods of inattentiveness when it isfeeding or resting is best developed with the female for it is she who is mostactive in the reproduction of the species.After the female becomes mated with the male, she soon begins to carry inlining for the nest, the rough part of which has been begun or finished by the malesome time previous. The female, however, does not carry nesting material intothe box continuously for long at a time, getting her food at odd moments whenshe is looking for material. On the contrary, she works assiduously at buildingthe nest for a period of a few to several minutes, and then goes off and huntsactively for food for herself, only to come back when this period is ended to carrymore material for another stretch of time, and so on. While building her nest sheis not concerned with looking for food. Likewise, when she is away looking forfood she does not concern herself with nesting duties. She usually spends agreat deal longer time away from the box than at the box during this phase ofher nesting activities.The same holds true for the days during which she is laying her set of eggs.Her inattentive periods are usually much longer than her attentive periods,although she comes to the box at regular intervals throughout the day. As herset nears completion and the duties of incubation approach, the inattentiveperiods gradually shorten, and the attentive periods not only lengthen but becomemore numerous.The day on which the eggs hatched the activities during the earlymorning started at the normal rate. However, at one nest studied,beginning at 7 : 11 her record indicates considerable uneasiness.The reason for this became apparent when at 7 : 35 the first young bird wasfound to have just broken out of the shell. All of her eggs hatched during therest of the day. The number of her attentive and inattentive periods during the
124 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMday was 82, although the average number per day during the incubation periodhad been only 43 V2. This unusual restlessness, however, was exceptional, sinceour records for other females are much steadier.The female during the next few days gradually resumed her normal rateof activity. During the next 6 days when she spent considerable time brood-ing the young, the periods of attentiveuess averaged about 13%o minutes and herperiods of Inattentiveness about 4%o-Wlien both adult birds were busy from morning till night with the feedingof the young, periods of attentiveness and inattentiveness still were the rule.The adults would feed the young several times in succession and then taliea short period off when they would get some food and rest for themselves.Sometimes they would feed the young repeatedly and rapidly nine, ten, ormore times before they would stop. Then again the number of feedings perperiod would be only three or four, or in many cases, but one. Usually thenumber of feedings per period averaged higher in the morning than in theheat of the day.Baldwin (1921), through his exhaustive banding operations atCleveland, Ohio, has shown that house wrens are not permanentlymated. Not only do they change mates from season to season but alsothey shift mates between the two nesting periods of the same season.His banding records indicate also that the house wren breeds theseason after hatching when it is one year old. Out of 156 wrens bandedduring the 5 years between 1915 and 1920, 10, or 6% percent, re-turned either to the same or to other nesting boxes on his premises.In more recent banding results Kendeigh (1941) reported a 75 per-cent return ratio of adults. Baldwin observed the details of thelife history of seven different nests of which the following is typical
:
The nest was started on July 4 and completed 2 days later, July 6.The set of eggs was completed on July 13 and hatched on July 26, anincubation period of 13 days. The young left on August 10 afterspending 15 days in the nest. The total cycle required 36 days.Col. S. T. Walker, of Milton, Fla., made the following detailedobservations of a pair of nesting house wrens (Kidgway, 1889) :I was sick at the time, and watched the whole proceeding from thelaying of the first stick to the conclusion. The nest was placed in one ofthe pigeonholes of my desk, and the birds effected an entrance to the roomthrough sundry cracks in the log cabin.Nest begun April 15th.Nest completed and first egg laid April 27th.Last egg laid May 3d.Began incubation May 4th.Hatching completed May 18th.Young began to fly May 27th.Young left the nest June 1st.Total time occupied 47 days.The time spent by the young in the nest, as reported by variousobservers, varies from 12 to 18 days. Burns (1921) states the com-plete nesting cycle of the house wren is 35 to 45 days, whereas Be-wick's wren and the chickadee require 52 to 53 days.
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 125Baldwin and Bowen (1928) state that out of 104 nests underobservation at Gates Mills, Ohio, 86 broods were successful. "Thetotal number of eggs laid by all females under observation was581. Of these 424 or about 73 percent hatched, and 390, or about67 percent left the nest as normal young. The remaining 33 percentperished at one stage or another."The instincts of the house wren are so strongly developed in certainindividuals that curious situations sometimes occur. Mrs. Bridge(1911) reports a single pair of birds nested on her premises, buttwo nests were constructed, one in a gourd and the other in a bird-house. When the young were hatched the brood in the birdhousewere fed by the male alone but the young in the gourd were fedby both members of the pair. The inference is that after the femalelaid both sets of eggs she incubated the eggs in the gourd while themale took care of those in the box.Kendeigh (1941) records cases of multiple nesting as follows:Although the female ordinarily remains with the young until they becomeindependent, there is a tendency towards the end of the first period when thenestlings are being cared for in the box for the female to begin preparations fora second brood. She may inspect other boxes either of the same male or of othermales in different territories. If acceptable, mating may occur very soon, nest-lining inserted, or even egg-laying begun before she is through caring for herfirst brood. It is but a small step to actual desertion of the first brood by thefemale in order to start a second brood that much sooner, but desertion does notordinarily occur without provocation. When the female leaves, the male willordinarily care for the young alone. He mostly stops singing and applies himselfassiduously to the task of hunting food for his offspring. However, he does notbrood nor does he stay in the box at night. If the female deserts before theyoung have acquired self-regulation of their body temperature, death usuallyfollows, but after a week's development, the male is often able to bring them offsuccessfully.It has been observed that house wrens that for some reason or otherfail to raise a brood of their own and sometimes individuals that donot succeed in obtaining a mate will satisfy the urge for caring foroffspring by feeding the adults or young of other species. Hills ( 1924)reports a case in which a house wren fed the adults and young ofgrosbeaks as well as a family of English sparrows. His account is asfollows : "The female Grosbeak was on the nest and a House Wren wasbringing small caterpillars to her, which she took from the Wren'sbeak and fed to her young. At first it seemed to me as though theWren was liable to be cited as co-respondent, but soon the male Gros-beak came and relieved his mate on the nest, yet the Wren continuedto come with food which the male Grosbeak likewise received and fedto the young. * * * Both of the Grosbeaks sometimes themselvesate the Wren's offerings, in place of feeding them to their young. TheWren made more trips to the nest than both Grosbeaks combined."After the young grosbeaks left the nest the wren persisted in feeding
126 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthem directly. A few days later this same wren was observed feedinga family of English sparrows.There is evidence that polygamy may be practiced among housewrens. Kathleen M. Hempel (1919) gives an account of two familiesof wrens that were served by one male. The lone male carried food toboth females during the course of incubation and assisted in feedingeach of the broods of offspring. John W. Taylor (1905) cites asimilar case at St. Paul, Minn., in which a male wren carried food totwo nests, one located in a stump and the other about 60 feet away ina birdhouse. Metcalf ( 1919) writes that he had eight house-wren nestson his place at Foreston, Minn., but at no time did he observe morethan two males.After the young leave the nesting box in which they were reared,they seldom return, but many observers have reported seeing the entirefamily brood rounded together by the parents, at the end of the day,to roosting places. These places may be other nesting boxes, a plat-form provided by an unused robin's or chipping sparrow's nest, or thedense foliage of a pine tree or shrub. Such roosts may be used for aweek or more before the family disperses and the young assume a moreor less independent role. Usually the adults remain with their youngabout 12 or 13 days, and for the first part of this period the parentsfeed the young practically everything they receive. During the lastfew days of this period they acquire the ability to hunt food for them-selves, and the parents spend less and less time with them. Finally,when the young are able to take care of themselves, the relationship ofparent to offspring ceases and becomes that of individual to individual.Pluinages.?The natal down is sepia brown in color. This first plum-age is very scant, being represented in typical specimens by not morethan 25 neossoptiles or down feathers. Of these there are five on eachside of the crown and four on each side of the occipital region. Onthe back of the bird there are three on each side and usually a singleone at the posterior end of the median line.The down undergoes disintegration by wear and abrasion in thenest, and by the time the young are ready to fly only a few filamentsremain attached to the tips of the juvenal feathers. The juvenalplumage of the house wren is described by Dwight (1900) as follows
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"Above, Prout's-brown, russet tinged on the rump and deep grayishsepia on the pileum, sometimes faintly barred. Wings and tail Prout's-brown, darkest on the wings both with wavy, dusky barring, the palestareas on the outer primaries. Below, including sides of the head, dullgrayish white with dusky mottling, washed strongly with russet onthe flanks and crissum. Orbital ring dusi^ buff. Bill and feet buffysepia-brown, becoming darker." The juvenal plumage differs fromthat of the adult in the blackish mottling of the breast, but thesemarkings disappear with the postjuvenal molt.
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 127Boulton (1927) has presented a detailed and exhaustive study ofptilosis of the house wren in which his general conclusions are asfollows
:
The first appearance of feathers and the sequence of their development in thevarions regions follow in definite pre-determined order, constant for any oneregion but varying among different regions.Development usually begins at one side or end of a region and spreads pro-gressively over it until growth is completed.In at least one case (primaries), development begins in the middle of the regionand proceeds simultaneously toward each end.In another case (Ventral Tract), there are two centers of development. Oneappears in the middle of the tract and spreads both posteriorly and anteriorly.The other starts in the inter-ramal region and spreads backward until it meetsthe anterior portion of the other development center. In the Spinal Tract isfound a somewhat parallel case.The feather sheath, after emerging from the skin, has no function and its rateof disintegration is primarily correlated with the amount of abrasion to which itis exposed.The growth of feathers appears to be retarded until the second week of nestlinglife, but, to a large extent, this is actually due to the fact that development isgoing on beneath the skin during the first week and is often overlooked, while therupture of the feather sheath and consequent exposure of the feather during thesecond week makes growth appear more noticeably.According to Dwight (1900),the first winter plumage is acquired by a partial postjuvenal moult, beginning latein August, which involves the body plumage and wing coverts, but not the restof the wings nor the tail. The young and old become practically indistinguishable.[This plumage is] similar to the previous plumage but darker and grayer withfaint barring above, the wing coverts, chieflj'^ the lesser with whitish spots ; belowwhiter without mottling, the throat and sides obscurely barred with pale drab,the flanks and crissum boldly barred dull black which is bordered with russet.First nuptial plumage acquired by wear, excessive by the end of the breedingseason, which brings out the barring more conspicuously and makes the birdgrayer and paler, especially below.Adult winter plumage acquired by a complete postnuptial moult in August.Practically indistinguishable from first winter, perhaps averaging grayer withdarker wings and tail.Adult nuptial plumage acquired by wear as in the young bird. * * * Thesexes are alike and the moults correspond.Albinism and melanism, which occur frequently in many familiesof birds, is apparently rare in the Troglodytidae. Ruthven Deane, whogave this subject a great deal of attention, knew of none and em-phasized the absence of these plumages in certain families, includingthe Troglodytidae. He offered no explanation for its absence. In asearch through the literature I have failed to find a single record of analbinistic or a melanistic form of the house wren. Hence these phasesof plumage in this species are remarkable for their rarity if not theirabsence.
"Wetmore (1936) counted the number of contour feathers in various
128 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMpasseriform birds including two house wrens. A male secured onJune 11, 1933, weighing 13.3 grams had 1,271 contour feathers, thelatter weighing 0.6 gram. Another male, obtained on July 9, weigh-in 11.5 grams, had 1,178 contour feathers weighing 0.7 gram.Poole (1938) in studying the ratio of wing area to weight and theeffect of this ratio on flight, determined the wing area of a house wrenweighing 11.0 grams to be 48.40 square centimeters. The wing areaper gram is shown to be 4.40 square centimeters. As a means of com-parison it is interesting to note that in the case of the loon, a poorflier, there is the ratio of only 0.56, while that of Leach's petrel, whichspends much of its time in flight, has a ratio of 9.47.Temperature.?Kendeigh and Baldwin (1928) made an exhaustiveseries of temperature readings of the house wren in connection withtheir study of temperature control. For this work they used speciallydevised thermometers and thermocouples.The average temperature of wrens during the first day after hatchingis 98.6? F. This gradually increases with the age of the young, andby the time they are 15 days old the average temperature is 106.7? F.According to these authors
:
The body temperature of young house wrens vary several degrees during thefirst few days out of the shell, but by the time they are ready to leave the nesttheir temperatures are not only higher but distinctly less variable.The development of a resistance in young house wrens against cold follows thesigmoid growth curve. This development of temperature resistance is dueprimarily to the mass of body increasing faster proportionately than the externaldissipating surface, to the development of a feather covering, to the developmentof an internal dissipating surface probably under nervous respiratory control,and to the production of heat in the metabolism of the bird. * * * No efficientresistance against extreme heat is developed in young house wrens, althoughthe rapid respiration from the lungs and air sacs probably serves toward thisend.According to Kendeigh (1934) the standard temperature of adulthouse wrens taken at complete rest and without food in the alimentarytract is for the males 104.4? F. (40.2? C.) and for the females105.0? F. (40.6? C. ) . He says further
:
These values are fairly constant under various conditions, but may be loweredat night when the bird is inactive and without food for several hours. * * *Emotional excitement, muscular activity, extremely high air temperature, andthe digestion of food cause a rise in body temperature, while starvation andextremely low air temperature produce a decrease. * * * Under naturalconditions a slight correlation exists between variations in average bird and airtemperatures from day to day ; but the variation in the average bird temperaturemay amount to only a few tenths of one degree while the average air temperaturemay vary 20" F. (11.1? C.) or more. Even this slight correlation may not be adirect one but dependent upon variations produced in the amount of activity ofthe bird from day to day.
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 129
* * Under certain experimental conditions, the body temperature of ahouse wren has been lowered to below 75? F. (23.9" C.) yet the bird recoveredwhen it was placed for a short time in a warm incubator. A body temperature of71? F. (21.7? C.) is, however, lethal.High air temperature^s become significant only when they get ashigh as 93? F. At air temperatures above this degree the resistancetime of the birds decreases, body temperatures may rise, the generalmetabolism is abnormally disturbed, and the normal reproductive be-havior interfered with. Birds have upper limits of temperaturetolerance as well as lower limits, and these .seem to be effective in con-trolling distribution.Food.?As far as its feeding habits are concerned, the house wrenmay be considered entirely beneficial to the interests of mankind. Thefood is almost all animal life, the small amount of plant material foundin stomach examinations being purely incidental and taken in thecourse of capturing insects poised on the vegetation. Much of ourknowledge of the food habits of the house wren is based on field obser-vations, but the most precise information we have has been derivedfrom the detailed analyses of the stomach contents of individuals col-lected in all sections of the distributional range of the species.According to Beal (1897), 98 percent of the food is made up ofinsects or their allies and only 2 percent is vegetable matter. One-halfof the food consisted of grasshoppers and beetles, the remainder cater-pillars, bugs, and spiders. The examination of 68 stomachs of housewrens, reported in a later publication, by Beal (Beal, McAtee, andKalmbach, 1916) , substantiated the above findings. The largest fouritems taken in order of their amounts are bugs, grasshoppers andrelated forms, caterpillars, and beetles. The bugs, made up chieflyof stink bugs, negro bugs, and leafhoppers, constituted 29.34: percentof the food. Grasshoppers, crickets, and locusts are represented in thefood throughout the season and aggregate 17.61 percent of the food.Moths and caterpillars, including such forms as cabbage worms andgypsy moths, make up 13.9 percent, and beetles trail closely in amountat 13.8 percent. Ants are eaten to the extent of only 8 percent of theyearly food, but during March they are more significant, being repre-sented in that month by 22.67 percent. Bees, wasps, and flies aretaken in smaller amounts ; evidently these types of insects are left forthe fleeter flycatchers and swallows. Spiders are very acceptable andare captured every month in the season. The latter are found by theinquisitive wrens while searching and exploring under piles of lumberor brush, stone walls, hollow logs, outhouses, and sheds. Only a mere3 percent of the insects eaten can be considered useful as enemies ofdestructive species of insects.
130 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIn addition to the above-mentioned items of food, small numbersof millipeds, ticks, lice, aphids, snails, and small crustaceans are some-times included in the diet. There is no evidence in the examination ofstomach contents that the wren eats fruit or other farm products, thusplacing it high in the group of our beneficial birds.The nestlings are fed very frequently and consume enormous quanti-ties of food. Judd (1900) made field observations of a brood of threewrens that were housed in a cavity of a locust tree at Marshall Hall, Md.The nest with its family was transferred to a baking-powder cannailed to a trunk of a tree to facilitate the observations. In the courseof 41/2 hours the mother wren made 110 visits, during which she deliv-ered 111 insects and spiders. Among those identified were 1 white grub,1 soldier bug, 3 millers (Noctuidae) , 9 spiders, 9 grasshoppers, 15 may-flies, and 20 caterpillars. On the following day similar observationswere made from 9 : 35 a. m. to 12 : 40 p. m., during which time the youngwere fed 67 times. The food included 4 spiders, 5 grasshoppers, 17mayflies, and 20 caterpillars.Jones (1913) observed a pair of wrens feeding their young for aperiod of 65 hours, during which there were 667 visits to the nest, 560by the male and 107 by the female. "There were 637 [641?] pieces offood brought"?161 geometrid larvae, 141 leafhoppers. 112 younggrasshoppers, 56 bugs, 42 spiders, 29 crickets, 10 moths, 5 ants, 4 miscel-laneous, and 81 pieces unidentifiable ; and 29 visits were made withoutfood.McClintock ( 1909 ) observed a wren feeding her nestlings consider-able numbers of blue-bottle flies. Sometimes the flies were stripped oftheir legs and wings, but oftener they were fed intact.Perhaps a record for number of feedings by an individual wren inone day is that of a male bird observed by Clara K. Bayliss (1917) atMacomb, 111. The pair of wrens nested in a bird box nailed to a dis-used poultry house. The female disappeared, probably killed, afterthe brood of seven was hatched. On June 26, when the young were12 days old, the lone male bird, during a continuous all-day watchfrom 4:15 a. m., the time of the first feeding, until 8 p. m., whenactivity ceased, made 1,217 visits to the nest with food. During thehour from 9 : 15 to 10 : 15 a. m. the bird made a record of 111 visits tothe nest, or an average of nearly two visits for every minute.Similar observations by various other observers confirm the largenumber of visits made to the nests by the adult birds, indicating thatenormous quantities of food are consumed by the young. Indeed theyoung as well as the adults spend the major part of their daylighthours in the serious business of feeding.Stevenson (1933) has shown that the stomachs of the young areconsistently larger than those of the adults and has proved the greater
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 131food-carrying capacity of young birds over adults. Through a largeseries of measurements he has found that the average length of theintestine of a house wren one day old is 4.2 centimeters, and by thetime it is 11 days old it reaches a maximum of 12.5 centimeters. Hefinds the value obtained by dividing the length of the intestine by thebody weight decreases from 2.80 at the time of hatching to 1.31 at 11days. There is a gradual decrease in this proportion with increasingage until the birds become adults. Tests indicate that food passesthrough the entire alimentary tract in approximately 11/2 hours, andthus the food supply must be constantly replenished. Stomachs ex-amined at all hours of the day reveal that they are seldom empty andindicate that food is taken repeatedly even though the stomach al-ready contains food.Hervey Brackbill (MS.) , of Baltimore, Md., has attempted to as-certain the source of the food brought to the nestlings. He carefullywatched the adult bird during 152 feedings to determine the placesof its foraging. The parent flew out of sight on 107 occasions, butin 45 instances he was able to follow the bird to its hunting grounds.On 21 of the trips it went to the ground, a clipped lawn, wild landcovered with tall grass and weeds, and the gutter of an asphalt-pavedroad. Twenty times it secured the food from a tree, one time climb-ing up the trunk of the nest tree after the fashion of a brown creeperto pick off a moth. It resorted to a bush three times, and once ithawked its prey by flying out in a swift loop from the nest tree.Voice.?The loud clear song of the house wren is one of the domi-nant characteristics of its striking personality. The Chippewa In-dians, who were keen observers of nature, fully recognized this traitas revealed by their name for the house wren: O-du-nd-mis-sug-ud-da-we'-shi., meaning a big noise for its size (Cooke, 1884).The scolding or alarm note of the house wren is a harsh, gratingchatter, but the song is a burst of melody, a rather loud, hurried,strenuous, bubbling outpouring?shrill, ecstatic, and difficult to de-scribe or to translate into written words. It is a varied song, but tohuman ears it is not musical or nearly so appealing as that of itsrelative, the Carolina wren. The persistent repetition of its nervousenergetic outbursts has after a time a tendency to tire the listener.Dr. Winsor M. Tyler, in correspondence, writes of the song as fol-lows ; "The house wren's song is a simple little smooth-running strain,a common form begins with a chatter of rapid notes and then, with-out pause, runs down the scale in a cascade of seemingly doubled notes.The syllables tsi-tsi-tsi-tsi-oodle-oodle-oodle-oodle suggest it some-what. It varies in form a great deal in minor details and is often full-bodied in tone of voice, but it is practically always delivered withthe customary gush and tiresome reiteration. When disturbed, and
132 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMit takes little to disturb a house wren, the bird bursts forth with asharp, tense chatter of the Baltimore oriole, or with a long series ofnervous fidgety chip-notes."In correspondence from Aretas A. Saunders, he presents an excellentanalysis of 55 records he made during his extensive study of the songsof the house wren. His remarks follow : "While the song of the housewren is very variable, it most frequently consists of a series of veryrapid notes, the pitch rising at the beginning, falling toward the end,with a sudden increase in loudness on the highest notes in the middleof the song. There are commonly groups of three to eight repeatednotes on the same pitch. Some of the songs contain trills, but themajority do not. Twelve of my 55 records contain one or more trills,that is, places where the notes are so rapid that the single notes cannotbe counted. With these 12 records omitted, and six others that areunusual and all from the same bird, the remaining 37 records average16 notes per song, the least being 11, in five records, and the most 23 inonly one.
"The pitch of my records ranges from D ' ' ' to B ' ' ' and a greatmajority have the highest and loudest notes on A ' ' '. The averagesong ranges from about two and a half tones from the lowest to thehighest note. The greatest range of any one song is four tones, andthe least one and a half. One unusual song is not considered, since itis all one pitch and therefore has no range. The songs of my recordsrange from 1% to 2% seconds in length. The rapid notes seem tobe about eight per second in most cases."Hervey Brackbill (MS.), of Baltimore, Md., has observed thehouse wren sing during the course of its flight. He states : "DuringMay I saw a house wren burst into song on the last 2 or 3 yards of a50-yard flight from tree to tree, completing the song without inter-ruption after alighting. Again, one or two that were keeping closecompany several times continued songs while flitting from branch tobranch, and once this bird began a song about a foot from the finishof a 5-yard flight."At the height of the singing season the song is repeated with anamazing frequency. In one timing of the song of a male of a pairthat nested in a box on an Illinois farm, the full song was repeatedthree to four times every minute and at one time totaled five timesduring the course of one minute.The house wren begins its singing at an early date even beforeits departure from its winter to its summer haunts. Kopman (1915)writes that it sings freely for 3 weeks or more in its winter retreatsof Louisiana before leaving on its northern migration.Early in the spring one may find a house wren singing a song thatis an irregular indefinite jumble of notes, only slightly or not at allsuggestive of the usual song of the species, which has been referred to
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 133
as a "primitive" and by others as an "abnormal" song. Saunders(1929b) relates an interesting experience with a house wren singingthese abnormal songs at Fairfield, Conn., as follows
:
[The] song was like that of no bird with which I am familiar. In fact thebird possessed nine different songs, no one of them normal, although one or twohad a wrenlike suggestion in them. One began with five long, loud whistlednotes, a little suggestive of some notes of the cardinal. Another began with twosuch notes and two others ended with a single note of this character. One wasa series of slurs and somewhat suggested a Swamp Sparrow. Another in formbut not in voice, was like a Song Sparrow song, yet no one of these songs sug-gested any of these birds clearly enough as to make me think them imitations.All these songs were recorded between June 4th and 17th, after which the birddisappeared. When I first heard this bird I had not the slightest idea whatspecies was producing the song.The song of some birds ceases or deteriorates with the completionof the set of eggs and the beginning of incubation, but in the caseof the house wren the full song is continued with great frequencyeven when the young are being fed. Saunders (1929b) has presentedan interesting interpretation of this continued singing from the stand-point of function. During the early part of the breeding season itserves as a territory song, but later when the young appear it acts asa stimulus in prompting the young to a feeding response. Saunderswrites as follows
:
Many have undoubtedly observed the incessant singing of the male HouseWren when feeding young and the habit of approaching the nest with a bill fullof insects and singing just before entering the door, without dropping any of theinsects. This explains why the bird has this habit. The song at that time doesnot differ materially from the territory song of earlier spring but it is no longera territory song, but a stimulus for the young. According to my own observationsduring the early nest life of the young House Wrens, the male gathers the foodand the female stays in the nest with the young, probably brooding, the malepassing the food to her at the entrance. Later, when the young are older andneed no stimulus, but need a greater quantity of food, both parents gather foodand feed the young.According to correspondence received from A. D. DuBois, the notesof the male, at the time when the wrens had young, changed to ashorter simpler strain consisting principally of two tones: a succes-sion of high notes followed by a succession of low notes.The song of the house wren is continued to a time well beyond thenesting season. The bird is in full song until the last week of Julyand then tapers off into August, but it continues to sing during most ofthe month and has been heard as late as November 5. Evans (1918)
,
a florist at Evanston, 111., left the door of his greenhouse open in thefall. A house wren entered, and in the evening the song was heard.The bird remained all winter, and the song was delightful in zeroweather of January. These late songs, however, are different, oftenexhibiting a decided change in quality and volume when compared758066?48 10
134 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
with the territory song. Likewise, the song has none of the spon-taneity and vigor of the spring song ; rather it is a low rambling warble.They are abnormal songs resembling those that are sometimes heardearly in spring. Likewise there comes at this time a correlated changein the behavior of the birds. They no longer cling to the vicinity ofhuman habitations and are more apt to be found inhabiting the rocksand shrubs of wild and unfrequented localities.Albert K. Brand (1938) has made recordings of numerous birdsongs on film, a medium from which sounds can be studied objectively.Such a film reveals a picture of the number of vibrations per secondthat determines the pitch of sound. He has found that the averagepitch of passerine bird songs is 4,280 vibrations, or a quarter of a notehigher than C7, the highest note on the piano keyboard. The approxi-mate mean of the notes of the house wren is 4,100. The highest note inits song reaches 7,125, while the lowest is about 2,050 vibrations persecond.In the table below are Brand's determinations of the pitch of the songof the house wren placed alongside those of the crow, which has a low-pitched voice, and those of the black-polled warbler, a bird with anextremely high voice. This table will serve to facilitate a comparisonin the pitch of these three very different songs. Black-polledHouse Wren Crow WarblerApproximate mean 4, 100 1, 500 8, 900Highest note 7,125 1,650 10,225Lowest note 2,050 1,450 8,050EneTTiies.?As is true with many birds, the house wren is host to anumber of external parasites. Peters ( 1936 ) lists five species as havingbeen found on the house wren : Two lice, Menopon sp. and Philopterussubfavescens (Goef.) , and three species of mites, Dermanyssus galUnae(Deeger), Liponyssus sylviarum (C. & F.), and Tromhicula lohartoniEwing. Wliile the presence of lice and mites is not usually fatal to thebirds, heavy infestations are very annoying and may prove harmfulespecially to the nestlings, which have no means of ridding themselvesof the pests.Baldwin (1922) cites a specific example in which there was a lonehouse wren in a nest that received all the food and attentions of theadult birds. This nestling, instead of growing rapidly in size andweight, as might be expected, was far below normal, greatly under-nourished, and a miserable skinny-looking specimen. This conditionprevailed until a heavy infestation of lice was discovered and a poultry-louse killer applied on the twelfth day. After that there was someimprovement, and a considerable gain in weight was noted.No records of internal parasites and diseases of the house wren havecome to my attention, but doubtless a thorough examination of manyspecimens would reveal them.
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 135Nests of the house wren have been found by Mason (1936) to beinfested by the larvae of the blood-sucking fly Protocalliphora splen-dida sialia. These larvae have been found to be very destructive to theyoung of such box-nesting species as the bluebird and tree swallow.The nests of the wren are less favorable for the parasites, but even sothey have proved to be an important factor in the mortality of nestlingwrens. This has been found to be especially serious when the infesta-tions are accompanied by other unfavorable conditions such as badweather, and lack of food which tend to lower the resistance of theyoung. These flies are not known to be carriers of diseases, but, whenpresent in sufficient numbers in a bird's nest the larvae often suckenough blood from the young birds to bring about their death.In the examination of 39 nests of the wren a total of 201 larvae andpuparia were found. A secondary parasite, which serves as a naturalcheck on ProtocalU'phora^ is the chalcid Mormoniella^ and it is thusdesirable to give this little fly every opportunity to increase in numbers.When heavy infestations of the blood-sucking fly Protocdlli'phoraoccur, it is important to clear the nesting boxes after the young are fouror five days old.It is well within the range of possibility that pests such as Proto-calliphora have been an important factor in the local disappearance ofthe wren in sections of New England where the English sparrow hasshouldered most of the blame.Spiders hatched from egg sacs carried into the nests with stickssometimes prove a menace to the wrens. Hathaway (1911) gives anaccount of a pair of wrens that were driven away by spiders. Hisstory in part is as follows
:
About a week after I missed the delightful song, so I started to investigate.Rapping on the stub no bird appeared, and I soon saw that the edges of the holewere alive with small spiders. I took the stub down and examined it, and foundthe nest swarming with these spiders. The birds in building the nest bad usedsmall twigs entirely and had thickly stuccoed them with the white egg sacs of aspecies of spider, that had hatched before the wren had deposited her own eggs,and instead of making a home for her young, she had unwittingly gathered togethera fine family of spiders and provided them with a well-sheltered retreat.Cats rank as enemy No. 1 of the house wren. Since these birds nestabout human habitations, especially on farms, where cats are common,they fall prey to them oftener than do species of birds nesting inremote localities. Cats are especially destructive to young when theyleave the nest prematurely. Reports of adults' falling victim to catsare common, but young are always in imminent danger of the ravagesof these bird destroyers. I vividly recall seeing a cat seize two youngwrens in rapid succession when a brood of seven were startled fromthe nest before some of them were able to fly well. The unfortunateyoungsters landed on the ground where a prowling cat was poisedfor action.
136 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMErrington ( 1935 ) reports finding the remains of house wrens in thestomach contents of red and gray foxes ; hence individuals inhabitingplaces remote from the houses of man are also subject to prey by pred-atory mammals. Wrens are also preyed upon by predatory birdssuch as owls; Fisher (1893) reports finding the remains of a housewren in the stomach contents of a screech owl, and Errington (Er-rington et al., 1941) found three wrens in the pelletal remains of thehorned owl.While the house wren is notorious for its aggressions toward otherbirds, sometimes the tables are turned and it is driven away by huskierintruders. Henderson (1931) reports that Carolina wrens nest inboxes at his home, located near a heavy forest at Greensburg, Ind.Although house wrens attempt nest-building on his premises, they havebeen completely driven out by the Carolina wrens. The same can besaid for Bewick's wren in the southwestern section of the range of thehouse wren, although in some localities the situation is reversed. Inthe past the English sparrow has offered the severest competition.Indeed, the scarcity of the house wren in certain sections of its range,especially in New England, has been attributed to this persistent andaudacious marauder. Knight (1908) states that the house wren was acommon bird near Bangor, but at the advent of the English sparrowthe species began to diminish about 1885 and none have occurred theresince 1887. Similar conditions prevailed in Massachusetts. In recentyears since the marked decrease in English sparrows the house wren iscoming back and is now nesting in sections where for years it wasvirtually extirpated.Other birds have had their innings with the house wren, and eventhe midget of a hummingbird may spend its wrath on it when occa-sion arises. Hervey Brackbill (MS.) submits the following interest-ing experience : "One late August day I came upon a wren under attackby a ruby-throated hummingbird. Scolding, the wren was hoppingand flitting from one place to another close in to the two main stemsof a small locust tree while the hummer?apparently unable to followit through the twigs directly?darted in at it from the outer edge ofthe tree, then shot back out again to strike in through some other open-ing at the wren in its new position. The hummer made half a dozenthrusts within the next few minutes ; then the wren apparently founda safe spot. The hummer perched for a while, in near the heart ofthe tree, then flew off."Snakes are not a common enemy of the house wren, but the followingexperience of Hunter (1935) is interesting : "Last spring on one of mynature rambles at West Point, 111., my attention was drawn to the nestof a pair of House Wrens * * * by the alarm notes of the owners.Upon making an investigation I found it necessary to remove a GarterSnake * * * from the nest, while the process of digesting fiveyoung wrens continued uninterrupted."
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 137Wasps, bumblebees, fields mice, red squirrels, and chipmunks havealso been cited as troublesome to nestling house wrens.Friedmann (1938) has reported two cases in which the house wrenhas been host to the eggs of the parasitic cowbird. The character of theusual nesting site of the house wren is such that they are seldomimposed upon by these molothrine visitors.Sometimes man unwittingly becomes an enemy of the house wrenby spraying vegetation to kill insect larvae that are eaten by thewrens. Hoffman (1925) writes as follows: "For three successiveyears the House Wrens have abandoned their nests in the writer'syard when their young were partly grown. The dried remains ofthe nestlings were found when the nest boxes received a cleaningin the fall. At the time that the nests were abandoned the currantbushes had become infested with the small green currant wormsand had been dusted with finely powdered arsenate of lead. It wasshortly after the old birds were observed carrying the arsenate-covered worms to their nests that they disappeared and were not seenagain."Philp (1937) reports that house wrens among other birds wereblackened by smudge made during a cold wave to protect fruit froma threatening frost. The carbolic acid in the crude-oil vapor thatcovered both their food supply and their plumage was not enoughto prove fatal to the birds, but Philp states the birds were so saturatedwith the greasy oily deposit that they could not regain their normalcolors until the following molt.During migration fatalities frequently befall the house wren whenit flies into lighthouses and tall city buildings. Overing (1938) re-ports that a house wren was killed by flying against the WashingtonMonument, thus sharing the fate of many other species of birds.Sometimes wrens are carried out to sea by storms: Sprunt (1931)states that a house wren came aboard a ship when it was well outto sea off Cape Lookout, N. C. It crept under the winches andabout the mooring bilts for the better part of an hour.Fall.?In September the house wren, as we know it as a tenantin our nesting boxes during summer, undergoes a marked changein behavior, in song, and in plumage. At this time it deserts theenvironment of man and resorts to the deep recesses of the woodlands,where it skulks among the tangled underbrush making its presencemore difficult to detect. The song as previously noted may con-tinue, but it undergoes considerable modification. Its plumage isgrayer and darker than the garb worn in summer. Little wonderthat Audubon thought the bird he observed at this season to be adifferent and a distinct species, which he described as the wood wren.In New England and in most of its summer range the last housewrens remain until the middle of October, but the majority of them
138 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhave departed for their winter quarters in the Southern States be-fore this time. A few may linger until the first week of November.On November 5, 1941, one was seen and heard singing at Kingston,R. I., and another was observed on November 7, 1938, at Amherst,Mass., a record for the last-seen house wren in that region. Accord-ing to A. H. Howell (1932), the first house wrens reach their hauntsin Florida during the last week of September or the first week ofOctober. His earliest two records are of one seen at Oxford onSeptember 26, 1928, and one at Orlando on September 27, 1909.Concerning the house wren in its winter haunts Chapman (1912)writes
:
It has been claimed that the name of the House Wren is a misnomer, becausein the South during the winter these birds are found in the forests miles awayfrom the nearest liabitation. Tliis, however, is owing to circumstances overwhich the House Wren has no control. He is just as much of a House Wrenin the south as he is in the north; you will find a pair in possession of everysuitable dwelling. The difiiculty is that in the winter there are more HouseWrens than there are houses, and being of a somewhat irritable disposition,the House Wren will not share his quarters with others of his kind. Latecomers, therefore, who can not get a snug nook about a house or outbuilding,are forced to resort to the woods.A. H. Howell (1932) writes of the house wren in Florida as follows
:
"This little wren, well known in the North as a conspicuous inhabitantof orchards and dooryards, loses most of its familiarity while resort-ing in the South, and during the winter months frequents palmettothickets and brushy tangles in the hammocks. Here the birds areshy and for the most part quiet, but as spring opens one may occasion-ally hear snatches of the bubbling song, which on the breeding groundsis a nearly continuous performance." In Alabama, Howell (1924)states that the house wren "is quiet and rather shy, frequenting lowbushes and weed patches in the fields." Of the bird in LouisianaOberholser (1938) writes: "It frequents much more commonly theforests, thickets, and swamps, where it skulks about among the under-growth, and is sometimes difficult to observe. * * * It is seldomfound in flocks, but most of the birds move singly or in pairs."Kendeigh ( 1934) concludes in his study of the role of environmentin the life of birds that
?
The northward distribution of the eastern house wren during the breedingseason appears to be limited primarily by low night temperatures for whichthe shortening of the daily periods of darkness does not entirely compensate.The southward distribution appears to be primarily controlled by high dailymaximum temperatures and competition with the Bewick wren, Thryomanes 6.bewicki (Audubon). The eastward limit of the breeding range is determinedby the Atlantic Ocean, while a decrease in relative humidity and precipitationmay be directly or indirectly concerned in the westward transition from theeastern to the western subspecies of the house wren. Other factors are ofuncertain or secondary importance.
EASTERN HOUSE WREN 139The wintering area of the eastern house wren is limited on the north by lownight temperatures combined with long daily periods of darkness, short day-light periods, low intensity of solar radiation, snow, and lack of available food.On the east, the wintering area is limited by the Atlantic Ocean, on the southby the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by much the same conditions, perhaps,that are effective during the breeding season.The southward migration of the eastern house wren in the autumn is necessaryfor the continued existence of the species, while the northward migration inthe spring avoids unfavorable breeding and existing conditions in the south.By migrating south in the autumn and north in the spring, the bird maintainsitself in a more nearly uniform and favorable environment throughout the year.The regulation of migration as to time is controlled in the spring by rising dailymaximum and night temperatures and changing relative proportions daily oflight and darkness. In the autumn, decreasing temperatures particularly atnight, longer nights and shorter days, and, for some species, decreasing foodsupply are most important. DISTRIBUTIOlSrRange.?Southern Canada to southern Mexico.Breeding range.?The house wren breeds north to southern BritishColumbia (southern half of Vancouver Island, Chilliwack, and 150-mile House) ; northern Alberta (Vermilion, McMurray, and LesserSlave Lake) ; southern Manitoba (Duck Mountain and Lake St.Martin) ; central Ontario (Lake Abitibi) ; southern Quebec (Quebec) ;and New Brunswick (Fredericton and Grand Falls). East to NewBrunswick (Fredericton) ; casually to Nova Scotia (Wolfville) ; andsouth through the Atlantic Coast States to North Carolina (Beaufortand Salisbury) and western South Carolina (Greenwood). Southto South Carolina (Greenwood) ; Kentucky (Harlan) ; northern Okla-homa (Tulsa and Enid) ; southern New Mexico (Cloudcroft and SilverCity) ; Arizona (Tombstone and the Huachuca Mountains) ; andnorthwestern Baja California (Sierra San Pedro Martir). West tonorthwestern Baja Balifornia (Sierra San Pedro Martir) ; westernCalifornia (Santa Barbara, Palo Alto, and Berkeley) ; Oregon (Pine-hurst, Elkton, and Portland) ; Washington (Vancouver, Shelton, andBellingham) ; and British Columbia (Courtenay). It may breedrarely in the uplands of Mexico, as specimens have been taken in thebreeding season, but as yet no nests or young have been reported.Winter range.?The house wren in winter is found north to southernCalifornia (Los Angeles, San Bernardino, occasionally to central Cali-fornia) ; southern Arizona (Tucson) ; northeastern Texas (Bonhamand Corsicana) ; southern Louisiana (Jennings and Port Allen) ; Ala-bama (Autaugaville) ; and the coast of South Carolina (CapeKomain) . East to South Carolina (Charleston and Port Royal) ; andFlorida (Daytona and Miami). South to Florida (Miami and LongPine Key) ; along the Gulf coast to southern Mexico, Veracruz (TresZapotes) ; Oaxaca (Huajuapam) ; and Guerrero (Chilpancingo).
140 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWest to Baja California (Cape region), and southern California (SanDiego, Los Angeles, and San Bernardino).The above distribution applies to the species as a whole, which hasbeen divided into three subspecies. The eastern house wren {T. a.aedon) breeds from New Brunswick southward east of the Alleghenies.The Ohio house wren {T. a. haldwini) breeds from Michigan to centralQuebec south to Kentucky and western Virginia. The western housewren {T. a. 'parhmanii) breeds from Wisconsin and Illinois westward.It is impossible at this time to break down the winter range by races ; infact, it seems more than likely that there is considerable overlapping.S'pring rnigration.?Late dates of spring departure from the winterhome are Florida?Daytona Beach, April 28. Georgia?Macon, May 1.North Carolina?Raleigh, May 4. Louisiana?New Orleans, April 18.Texas?San Antonio, May 14. Arkansas?Helena, April 27.Early dates of spring arrival are : North Carolina?Raleigh, April20. Virginia?Lynchburg, April 11. West Virginia?Bluefield,April 14. District of Columbia?Washington, April 11. Pennsyl-vania?Pittsburgh, April 21. New Jersey?Elizabeth, April 16. NewYork?New York, April 19. Connecticut?Fairfield, April 22. Mas-sachusetts?Springfield, April 22. Vermont?Burlington, April 22.Maine?Waterville, May 6. Quebec?Montreal, May 8. Ohio?Ober-lin, April 23. Indiana?Indianapolis, March 29. Illinois?Olney,April 15. Ontario?Toronto, April 2. Michigan?^Ann Arbor, April25. Iowa?Des Moines, April 21. Wisconsin?Milwaukee, April 10.Minnesota?Duluth, April 27. Kansas?^Manhattan, April 6. Ne-braska?Omaha, April 16. South Dakota?Yankton, April 17. NorthDakota?Bismarck, April 18. Colorado?Denver, April 20. Mon-tana?Billings, April 23. Manitoba?Winnipeg, April 23. Sas-katchewan?Indian Head, April 14. Alberta?Camrose, May 9.Arizona?Tombstone, April 1. California?Santa Barbara, March17. Oregon?Corvallis, April 7. Washington?Seattle, April 12.British Columbia?Victoria, April 11.Fall migration.?Late dates of fall departure are : British Colum-bia?Okanagan Landing, October 6. Washington?Spokane, Sep-tember 25. Oregon?Weston, November 10. California?San Fran-cisco, November 4. Alberta?Edmonton, October 7. Saskatche-wan?Qu'Appelle, October 1. Manitoba?Aweme, October 5. Mon-tana?Big Sandy, October 12. Colorado?Colorado Springs, October14. North Dakota?Fargo, October 6. South Dakota?-Sioux Falls,September 29. Nebraska?^Lincoln, October 27. Kansas?Onaga,October 2. Minnesota?St. Paul, October 6. Wisconsin?Madison,October 2. Iowa?Iowa City, October 2. Missouri?Columbia, Oc-tober 9. Michigan?Grand Rapids, October 13. Ontario?Ottawa,September 30. Illinois?Urbana, October 1. Indiana?Fort Wayne,October 11. Ohio?Columbus, October 17. Quebec?Quebec, Oc-
WESTERN HOUSE WREN 141tober 6. Vermont?St. Johnsbury, October 2. Massachusetts?Bos-ton, October 18. Connecticut?Hartford, October 14. New York
?
Rochester, September 21. New Jersey?Elizabeth, October 30.Pennsylvania?Berwyn, October 20. District of Columbia?Wash-ington, October 23. West Virginia?Bluefield, October 13. Vir-ginia?Lexington, October 6.Some early dates of fall arrival are : North Carolina?Piney Creek,September 3. Georgia?Athens, September 15. Florida?Pensa-cola, October 6. Arkansas?Delight, September 23. LouisianaNew Orleans, October 8. Texas?Corpus Christi, October 7.Some light on the individual migrations of house wrens may begathered from the following records of banded birds : Banded at Ka-tonah, N. Y., September 14, 1937, and taken at Palma Sola, Fla., No-vember 18, 1937; banded at East Lansing, Mich., May 17, 1937, re-covered at Eockledge, Fla., May 11, 1938 ; banded at Notre Dame, Ind.,June 13, 1931, recovered at Moultrie, Ga., December 11, 1931; bandedat South Bend, Ind., June 20, 1930, and caught at Ardmore, Ala.,January 18, 1931; banded at Zion, 111., July 10, 1931, and killed nearBaxley, Ga., November 1, 1931.Casual records.?The house wren has been recorded casually atKispiox, British Columbia, where a specimen was collected on June 2,1921 ; and at Fort St. John where one was observed June 18, 1943 ; atFort Simpson, Mackenzie, on May 20, 1904 ; one observed near The Pas,Manitoba, on September 26, 1942; another observed near Churchill,Manitoba, on June 21, 1944; and at Kamouraska, Quebec, it wasrecorded for the first time on June 19, 1939.Egg dates.?California : 119 records, April 11 to June 26 ; 65 records.May 1 to May 20, indicating the height of the season.Colorado: 22 records, May 26 to July 10; 12 records, June 3 toJune 15.Illinois : 32 records, May 10 to July 27 ; 14 records, May 10 to May30 ; 10 records, June 5 to June 20.Montana : 12 records, June 5 to June 30.Ontario : 13 records. May 29 to July 23.Virginia: 13 records. May 15 to July 10; 6 records. May 21 toMay 29. TROGLODYTES AEDON PARKMANII AadabonWESTERN HOUSE WRENPlate 28HABITSAudubon (1841a) named this wren after his friend Dr. George Park-man, of Boston, considering it a distinct species. It has since beenshown to intergrade with the eastern house wren. Its range includesmost of the western United States and southern western Canada. It
142 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMdiffers but little from the eastern bird, averaging only slightly larger,but being decidedly paler and grayer, with the back and scapularsmore distinctly barred with dusky.Its habits are so similar to those of its eastern relative that nearlyall that Dr. Gross has contributed in his full life history of theeastern house wren would apply equally well to the western race. Itseems, however, that the western bird is a little less domestic in itstaste, less of a dooryard bird, or rather more of a woodland bird thanour familiar eastern house wren. It does, of course, frequent thehaunts of man, but seems to be more often found away from them inwoodlands. The difference may be more apparent than real, for muchof the western house wren's range is thinly settled, but where it doescome in contact with civilization it becomes less primitive and adaptsitself to the new surroundings.In the western mountain ranges, it is often found breeding in theforested regions up to 10,000 feet, or nearly up to timberline. In theHuachuca Mountains, Ariz., we found it breeding commonly in theconiferous forests, from 7,000 feet upward. Mr. Swarth (1904:b) says
:
"Upon their arrival in the spring, the first being noted on April 8th,they were distributed over all parts of the range, but soon withdrewto the higher altitudes to breed; nor did they descend again whenthe young were out of the nest, as so many species similarly placed,did."In southwestern Saskatchewan we found this wren very abundantin the timber belts along the creeks, where it was the commonest andmost ubiquitous bird and one of the most persistent singers; it ap-parently had not yet learned to frequent the ranches. Late in Maythey were evidently just mating, as the males were chasing the femalesabout and paying them courtship ; I saw a female perched on a fencepost, with quivering wings, while her ardent lover hopped along therail toward her, with wings and tail spread and head thrown back,pouring out a rich flood of rapturous song.Nesting.?The western house wren is no more particular about itschoice of a nesting site than is its eastern relative ; many and variedare the nooks and crannies in which it seems satisfied to build itsnest; any old cavity almost anywhere seems to suit it. In NorthDakota we found a nest in the hollow of a dead bianch on an oldstump of an elm, just above a larger hollow containing an occupiedgoldeneye's nest, and almost under an occupied nest of Krider's hawk
;
another nest was found in a bank swallow's burrow.In the timber belts along the streams in Saskatchewan we foundmany nests in the hollows in the boxelders and poplars. In theHuachuca Mountains, in Arizona, we found one nest in a pigeon-holecase in a deserted house in an abandoned mining camp ; and my com-panion chopped out a nest in a knothole in a large oak, about 30 feet
WESTERN HOUSE WREN 143from the ground ; both of these were at an elevation of about 8,000feet. F. Seymour Hersey mentions in his Manitoba notes a nest thatwas built in the skull of a moose, with horns attached, that was hungup in a tree back of an Indian's house.The commonest and most primitive nesting sites are in natural cav-ities or crevices in stumps, or in fallen or standing trees, including oldwoodpecker holes; such sites are usually at no great height aboveground, generally below 10 feet ; heights of 20 or 30 feet are unusual.The highest nest I find recorded is reported by Grinnell, Dixon, andLinsdale (1930) in the Lassen Peak region: "The bird carried twigsto the top of one of the tallest of the dead yellow pine stubs of thatvicinity, fully fifty meters above the ground. The bird each trip movedupward by a well defined route, flying from limb to limb as thoughmoving up a staircase. By the time the wren reached the nest in acrack at the top of the stub, the observer on the ground could scarcelytrace its movements." They found two other nests that were tenmeters up in similar stubs, as well as others at more normal heights.Nests have been found in cavities in rocks and crevices in caves.Ridgway (1877) mentions some interesting nests, observed in Nevada
:
"One nest was placed behind a flat mass of a small shrub {Spiraeacaespitosa) , which grew in moss-like patches against the face of a cliff.Another one, and the only one not concealed in some manner, was builtin the low crotch of an aspen, having for its foundation an abandonedRobin's nest. It consisted of a somewhat conical pile of sticks, nearlyclosed at the top, but with a small opening just large enough to admitthe owner. Including its bulky base, the total height of this structurewas about 15 inches."About human habitations bird boxes are eagerly accepted wherethese are available ; otherwise, any nooks or crannies on or in buildingsare used, or any tin can, box, pail, crate, empty stove pipe, or old hator coat left hanging in a shed will do. Some such interesting nestshave been described. Dr. W. W. Arnold (1906) shows a photographof a huge nest: "A shallow box afforded the foundation of the nest,which was constructed of the smaller twigs of the scrub oak and builtinto the form of a pyramid. Many of the twigs were forked and skill-fully locked together, forming a very rigid structure, 12 inches wide atthe base, 51/^ inches across the top, and 16 inches high."The nests are constructed mainly of small sticks or twigs, or rathermore accurately, this material is used to fill up, or to attempt to fill up,the cavity adopted ; in some cases an immense amount of such materialis brought in, sometimes enough to fill a bushel basket. The lining con-sists mainly of feathers, often in great profusion and of many colors.Many nests contain more or less snakeskin, and some are largely linedwith it. Dix Teachenor (1927) reports that out of 30 nests of westernhouse wrens examined by him and Harry Harris, near Kansas City,
144 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMo., 19 contained cast snakeskins, or about 63 percent of thoseexamined.Miss Maude Merritt (1916) gives an interesting list of materialwhich a male wren brought into a bird box and mixed with the usualassortment of twigs: One hat pin, 1 buckle, 10 bits of chicken wire,2 stays, 3 fasteners, 1 unidentified, 3 paper clips, 1 staple, 1 brass ring,2 toilet wires, 6 collar stays, 2 oyster-bucket handles, part of a mousetrap, 67 hair pins, 38 bits of wire, 5 safety pines, 3 steel pins, 22 nails,and 3 brads. The female refused to accept the nest and departed; Idon't blame her.While we were studying birds at Lake Winnipegosis, Manitoba, mycompanion, F. Seymour Hersey, watched a house wren carrying nest-ing material through a knothole in a shed where it was building a nest.She worked at it industriously; her time from leaving the nest untilreturning with more sticks varied from 25 to 35 seconds, though onceshe was gone a minute and 10 seconds. She had considerable difficultyat times in forcing the twigs through the small hole. Often the twigwould drop from her bill, when she would pick it up and try again
;
one twig, about 8 inches long, was dropped and picked up five timesbefore she succeeded in getting it through the hole. He placed someduck feathers near the hole, thinking she might use them, but shecarried them away and dropped them at some distance.Eggs.?The western house wren lays about the same number of eggsas the eastern bird, and the two are similar in size, shape, and mark-ings. The measurements of 40 eggs in the United States NationalMuseum average 16.3 by 12.6 millimeters ; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 17.7 by 12.7, 17.3 by 13.3, 14.7 by 12.2, and 17.3 by11.2 millimeters.Young.?Practically all that has been written about the young ofthe eastern house wren would apply equally well to the western sub-species, but there are a few items of interest that are worth addinghere. Mrs. Amelia S. Allen (1921) gives the following list of foodthat was fed to a brood of eight young during a period of 1 hour,10:20 to 11:20 a. m., on June 15, 1921, at Berkeley, Calif.: 5 lady-bugs, 4 crane-flies, 5 large and 4 smaU beetles, 2 wireflies, 1 lacewing,1 leafhopper, 5 crickets, 1 grasshopper, 1 butterfly, 1 moth, 1 milliped,1 grub, and 1 unknown; there were 33 feedings, with an average in-terval between feedings of 14 minutes and 32.7 seconds for each nest-ling.Dr. J. G. Cooper (1876) tells a remarkable story of a pair of wrens,with no other wrens within a quarter of a mile, that used the extranest, built by the male, to raise a second brood simultaneously withthe first ! As soon as the first nest was finished, the male began tobuild another. "The female rarely assisted in this work, though I oc-casionally saw both there, and in due time the second nest was fin-
WESTERN HOUSE WREN 145ished. Soon after the young in the first nest were hatched, andalthough needing much attention, the old birds still frequented thenew nest, and I began to suspect that one of them was sitting on eggsthere. This suspicion was soon verified by hearing the young, andseeing them fed. In this case each parent must have been sitting atthe same time on a nest, perhaps taking turns, during the week thatelapsed before the first hatching."Young wrens are known to return to their nest to roost at nightfor a while after leaving the nest. Miss Merritt (1916) tells of abrood of four young wrens that, on the second evening after leavingthe nest, were escorted by their mother to an empty catbird's nest ina syringa bush, where they spent the night. "The entire family offour young ones returned with the mother each evening for 14 days.On the fifteenth evening one of the young wrens was missing ; on thenext evening two did not return." On the evening of the seventeenthday the one remaining young refused to remain in the nest; it flewaway and never returned. The mother bird never roosted in the cat-bird's nest, and her roost was not discovered.Food.?The food of the western house wren agrees so closely in itsgeneral character with that of the eastern bird, that what has beenreported on the food of the latter will illustrate very well the food ofthe former. Prof. Beal (1907) examined only 36 stomachs from Cali-fornia, of which he says that "animal matter, consisting entirely ofinsects and spiders, formed 97.5 percent, and vegetable food 2.5 per-cent. Beetles, as a whole, amount to about 20 percent; caterpillars,aggi-egating 24 percent, are taken in the earlier months of the year
;
and Hemiptera, amounting to 33 percent, are eaten chiefly in thelast of the season. Grasshoppers amount to about 5 percent, and dif-ferent insects, mostly ants and other Hymenoptera, aggregate 15 per-cent."The western bird is evidently just as beneficial in its food habits asits eastern relative. About the only useful insects that it destroysare the coccinellid beetles, or ladybugs, and it destroys no fruit.I cannot find any evidence that it has the harmful habit of destroy-ing the nests or eggs of other birds, of which the eastern bird has beenso often accused. It is seldom imposed upon by the western races ofthe cowbird; Dr. Friedmann (1938) records only two such cases; theentrance to its nest is generally too small for the cowbird to enter.Fred Mallery Packard sends me the following note from EstesPark, Colo.: "House wrens arrive in the park early in May, to be-come the most abundant songster of the pines and aspens through theTransition and Lower Canadian Zones. They sing during the nestingseason, which starts early in June ; and some sing to the end of July,when most of the young of the second brood are fledged. They ap-pear to depart early?late in August and early in September?-butthere is one October record."
146 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMTROGLODYTES AEDON BALDWINI OberholserOHIO HOUSE WRENAccording to Dr. Oberholser's (1934) description, this subspeciesis similar to the eastern house wren, "but upper parts darker, muchless rufescent (more sooty or grayish) ; the sides and flanks less rufes-cent (more grayish) ; rest of lower surface more grayish (less buffy) ."He says that "this is the darkest of the forms of Troglodytes domesti-cus. It is always less rufescent than Troglodytes domesticus domesti-cus, but it has not only a dark sooty phase of plumage, but also a lighter,more grayish phase that more approaches Troglodytes domesticiisparhmanii. This latter phase is apparently not to be regarded merelyas a manifestation of intergradation, since it appears in all parts of therange of Troglodytes domesticus haldwinVIt breeds from central Quebec, southeastern Ontario, and Michigansouth to Kentucky and western Virginia. It migrates in fall andwinter to southern Texas and Florida.TROGLODYTES BRUNNEICOLLIS VORHIESI BrandtAPACHE WRENHABITSWhile they were in Arizona, in 1945, Dr. H. C. Oberholser and Dr.Herbert Brandt wrote enthusiastic letters to me about their dis-covery of a new bird, its nest, eggs, and young, that would be an addi-tion to the North American list. But I had to wait some time beforethey gave me the full particulars, which have now been published.The bird that they discovered was a Mexican species of wren, whichthey found to be commoner than expected in a region where more orni-thological work has been done than in any other section of Arizona.Previous workei-s, including the writer, had overlooked it because of itsresemblance to the well-known house wren, to which it is quite closelyrelated. While Frank Willard and I were collecting in the HuachucaMountains, on May 28, 1922, we took a set of six eggs that we supposedbelonged to a western house wren ; the nest was about 30 feet from theground in a knothole in a large oak at about 7,000 feet elevation ; wenoticed that the eggs looked different from house wren's eggs, beingmore sparingly marked, as described by Dr. Brandt; the eggs wentinto Mr. Willard's collection, and I do not know where they are now.Perhaps we missed the chance to make this interesting discovery
!
In naming this wren as a new subspecies, in honor of Dr. CharlesT. Vorhies, of the University of Arizona, Dr. Brandt (1945) describesit as "similar to Troglodytes hrwnneicollis cahooni Brewster, from theplateau of northwestern Mexico in the states of Sonora and Chihuahua,
APACHE WREN 147but duller and more grayish (less buffy) particularly on the underparts." He gives as its range ''the Huachuca and Santa Rita mountainsof Arizona and southward for an undetermined distance."Dr. Brandt (1945) gives the following interesting account of itsdiscovery and its nesting habits
:
At an elevation of some 7,200 feet, in one of tlie main defiles of Major JohnHealy's Carr Canyon Ranch, in the Huachuca Mountains, on June 6, 1945, Idetected a feathered flash leaving the opposite side of a large ash when I"squeaked" and scraped its rough bark. This tree was growing at the stream-bed,so I climbed the adjacent abrupt slope, to a level of the upper half of the tree.Before long the bird appeared and nervously entered a natural cavity, whichproved to be its nest, but quickly departed. The next time it returned, I was ableto obtain a good view of it with 8-power glasses, and, although it had the generalbehavior and appearance of a House Wren, yet there was a decided buff stripeabove the eye.His familiarity with the song of the eastern house wren enabled himto recognize a difference in the song of this bird, and so they decidedto investigate further. As the nest was 16 feet from the ground in themain trunk of a solid tree, it was necessary to postpone further workon it until the next day with the proper equipment.The next morning, June 7, Nelson Carpenter, with boldness and extreme diflj-culty, chopped through the 10-inch living trunk to the nest, and removed fiveincubated eggs, which appeared about a third smaller and more sparingly markedthan those of the House Wren. Jleanwhile, Lyndon Hargrave skillfully collectedboth shy parents, and we realized that we had an avian find. Doctor Oberholserat once pronounced the birds Gaboon's Wrens (Troglodytes irunneicolUscahooni), a most remarkable memory feat, as he had not studied this Mexicanspecies in nearly 40 yeai's.A second nest of this bird I discovered on June 8, several miles away inanother canyon of the range, also at an elevation of 7,200 feet. Its presence wassuspected as the result of a male's singing, and later a bird was seen entering anatural cavity in a tall, upright branch of an ash, 35 feet up, which proved to bein a position too unsafe to climb. * * *All nests discovered were situated at an elevation of between 7,000 and 7,300feet, in well-wooded canyon bottoms of the Transition Life Zone, and were in aregion where the Western House Wren was absent, although higher up the latteris not uncommon. Below 6,000 feet, Baird's Wren (Thryomanes betcickiieremophilus) is often encountered.Since the above was published. Dr. Brandt has sent me a reproduc-tion of a photograph, showing the nest and jfive eggs, and specimens ofa pair of adults and four young of different ages of the Apache wren.On the back of this is printed the following description of the nest
:
"The nest was in a small cavity of an ash tree and was a cozy cradleof colorful bird feathers, placed on a bed of pine needles. The eggsare more like the warbler tribe than those of the House Wren, and aresmaller than the latter."
148 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMTROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES HIEMALIS VieillotEASTERN WINTER WRENPlates 29, 30HABITSAlthough the winter wren breeds in suitable localities in some ofthe northern States, from western Massachusetts to central Minne-sota, and as far south in the Alleghenies as northern Georgia, it isusually found there in only limited numbers. To many of us it isknown only as a migrant, a furtive little mite, the smallest of itstribe, creeping mouselike about our wood piles or brush heaps, underthe overhanging roots of trees along some woodland stream, or underthe banks of marshland ditches. To see it, or rather to hear itstinkling, rippling song, to best advantage, we must visit its summerhaunts in the cool, shady northern forests, where the sunshine hardlypenetrates, where rotting stumps and fallen tree trunks are thicklycovered with soft mosses, where dampness pervades the atmospherenear babbling woodland brooks, and where a luxuriant growth offerns springs from the accumulation of rich leaf mold to nearlyhide the forest floor. Here it finds a safe retreat from prying eyes,where its dark color, diminutive size, and retiring habits make ithard to find, until we hear its remarkable voice announcing itspresence.Henry Nehrling (1893) says that "in the Alleghenies where ourmost magnificent shrubs, rhododendrons, mountain laurel or kalmiasand different azaleas fringe the streams and brooks and often coverwhole mountain sides, lending to them an indescribable charm, thisbird appears to take up its abode everywhere."Even on its breeding grounds this wren is sometimes seen in moreopen places; William Brewster (1938) has seen one among largeboulders at the very edge of the water at Lake Umbagog and amongthe tall grass on the lake shore.Spring.?The winter range of this wren is so extensive, from NewEngland to Florida, and the birds are so widely scattered at thatseason, that the spring migration is not conspicuous. Those thatspend a short winter in the Southern States start early to join theircompanions that have wintered farther north. There is a gradualand a leisurely northward movement, as the birds drift along frombush to bush, through one gully after another, through woodlandunderbrush and windfalls, along the edges of swamps, and along oldstone walls, always under cover where possible. Only when theycome to some wide stream or open space must they spread their tinywings and speed across.They mostly pass unobserved, until we hear the fine silver thread
EASTERN WINTER WREN 149
of their delightful music and stop to seek them out. They followclose on the heels of retreating winter, waiting not for the full flushof springtime, and reach their breeding grounds in southern Canadafairly early in April, often while the ground is still frozen or cov-ered with snow, and are soon singing merrily in their woodlandhaunts.Miss Cordelia J. Stanwood (MS.) writes of the arrival of thiswren in Maine: "About the middle of April, when the blossomingwillows look like yellow flames amid the somber sprout growths andthe last snow wraith has slowly transformed itself into a tinklingrill, the winter wren, the Spirit of the Brooks, is abroad. No onewho has heard him sing will dispute the right of the little red-brown bird to this appellation."Nesting.?I have never been fortunate enough to find a nest of thewinter wren in its typical northern haunts, but I believe I have seenthe only nest ever recorded in southeastern New England. Althoughtliis has already been recorded by one of the two men that were withme at the time (Hathaway, 1913), it seems worth while to describeit and its immediate surroundings, which, though out of its normalrange geographically, were evidently suitable and congenial.On May 24, 1908, Harry S. Hathaway, John H. Flanagan, and I
'svere exploring the southwestern comer of Kingston Swamp in RhodeIsland, searching especially for nests of the waterthrushes. This isa large, heavily wooded swamp ; the portion that we visited was coveredwith a heavy, primeval deciduous forest, a cool and shady retreat,the dense foliage of the large trees shutting out the sunlight; theatmosphere was cooled by a steady flow of clear, cold spring water,about ankle deep nearly everywhere and in many places nearly kneedeep; the current was perceptible all over the swamp, and in manyplaces it was quite swift. The principal tree growth consisted ofmaples and swamp white oaks, many of which were of very largesize ; there were also many red oaks, beeches, white and yellow birches,ashes, a few solitary white and yellow pines, and some fine specimensof hollies. There was an undergi'owth of saplings and shrubs, withnumerous brakes and other ferns in the drier spots. The shade anddampness produced the conditions that the winter wren seems torequire.We had found a nest of the Louisiana waterthrush in the lowerright corner of the upturned roots of a large fallen tree ; the exposedroots were 5 or 6 feet in diameter, and the tree in falling had lefta hole full of water more than knee deep. ^Vhile we were photograph-ing this nest, we were surprised to see a winter wren hopping aboutnear the tree, with food in her bill. We withdrew to watch and soonsaw her go to the same root and enter a small cavity, that we had not758066?i8 11
150 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
noticed, in the soil adhering to the roots. The nesting cavity wasabout 3 feet above the water in the upper left comer of the root andonly 4 feet from the nest of the waterthrush. Here was a bird of theCarolinian fauna and one of the Canadian fauna nesting in the samestump, each near the extreme limit of its range ! Furthermore, onlya few yards away was an occupied nest of the northern waterthrush,a most interesting combination.The front of the cavity, in which the wren's nest was built, wascompletely filled with sphagimm moss, green but partially dry; thenest was made of soft grasses, reinforced with weed stems, fine twigs,and rootlets; it was lined with white hair, which we concluded musthave come from a white-tailed deer, several wisps of which we foundhanging in the woods. The nest contained six young, which wethought were about a week old. We saw the bird come to the nestagain and feed the young with a large white caterpillar, while wewere within 15 feet of her. Then she cleaned the nest and flew offwith a white sack of excrement.The upturned roots of fallen trees offer favorite nesting sites forthese wrens, for when the tree falls the roots carry up with them largequantities of earth, in which many convenient cavities may be found.All six of the nests recorded in Owen Durfee's notes from northernNew Hampshire were in upturned roots. Among 35 nests of whichI have descriptions, 18 were in the upturned roots of fallen trees,evidently a favorite choice. Seven nests were recorded as in or underrotten stumps, or under the roots of trees; in such situations thenests are well concealed, for old stumps and roots are usually coveredwith a luxuriant growth of moss, which matches perfectly the materialwith which the outer part of the nest is made; the small entrancehole is not easily seen and the nest resembles any other mossy mound.A^erdi Burtch has sent me a photograph of a nest that was concealedin the roots of a tree overhanging a gully bank.Although the nests are usually placed on or near the ground, wellconcealed, some few have been reported in other situations. There isa set of eggs in my collection, taken by E. H. Montgomery in Labradorfrom an old hole of a woodpecker, 8 feet from the ground. F. H.Kennard mentions in his notes a nest that was "placed in a roll ofbark on the side of a huge yellow birch, about 5 feet from the ground."Ora W. Knight (1908) says that the nests are "sometimes suspendedfrom the branches of a spruce or fir tree even as high as ten feet fromthe ground. While these tree nests are more frequently the 'mock'nests, they sometimes lay in one of these and rear their brood." HarryPiers (1898) found a nest near Halifax, Nova Scotia, in an unusuallocation: "It was simply a cavity in moss, in situ upon the face of arock close to the shore of a small lake. This moss was constantly satu-rated with water which trickled from a bank above and slowly flowed
EASTERN WINTER WREN 151
over the stone on which the moss grew." Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway(1874) mention a nest, found by William F. Hall in Maine, that was
"built in an unoccupied log-hut, among the fir-leaves and mosses ina crevice between the logs. It was large and bulky, composed ex-ternally of mosses and lined with the fur of hedge-hogs, and thefeathers of the spruce partridge and other birds. It was in the shapeof a pouch, and the entrance was neatly framed with fine pine sticks."The nests are all much alike in construction ; there is usually a baseof fine twigs and coarse mosses, on which a bulky nest of various greenand yellow mosses is built, reinforced with a few fine twigs of spruceor fir ; the interior is well lined with the soft feathers of various birdsand the fur of any mammal that is available. Knight (1908) givesthe measurements of a nest before him as "outside from top to bottom7 inches; depth of cavity inside 2 inches; diameter of entrance hole1 inch ; diameter of interior of nest IVi inches ; from bottom of entrancehole to bottom of nest outside 4 inches; diameter of nest outside 4inches." This was evidently a long and narrow nest; the size andshape of the nest varies considerably as it must be adapted to thecavity it has to fill ; but it is always a large nest for so small a bird
;
and always the entrance on the side is only just large enough to admitthe little owner. Like some other wrens, the winter wren builds falsenests, decoy nests, or extra nests, supposed to be built by the male;these are usually not lined.Eggs.?Four to seven eggs may constitute the set for the winterwren, but five or six are commoner. They are usually ovate in shape,less rounded than those of the chickadees, which they otherwise some-what resemble. They are clear white, with small spots and fine dotsof pale reddish brown, "cinnamon" to "hazel," which are distributedmore thickly, as a rule, near the larger end. Some eggs are very spar-ingly marked with the finest of dots, or are nearly immaculate. Themeasurements of 40 eggs average 16.7 by 12.5 millimeters; the eggsshowing the four extremes measures 17.8 by 12.7, 16-7 by 13.0, 15.2 by12.7, and 15.7 by 11.9 millimeters.Toimg.-?The period of incubation for the winter wren does not seemto have been definitely determined, though it is probably the same asfor the English bird, 14 to 16 days. Whether both sexes share thisduty seems to be unknown also, but this is not surprising as it is sodifficult to distinguish the sexes in life. Early and late breeding datessuggest that sometimes two broods are reared in a season.William Brewster ( 1938 ) writes : "A brood of young scarce ableto fly came about the camp this forenoon [Aug. 31] . They kept callingto one another as they dodged in and out among the fallen logs utteringa fine, wiry tree-e-e something like that of the small spotted thrushes.When I disturbed and scattered them they chirruped at me in softtones. This chirrup is unlike any other bird call that I can remember.
152 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMI think it is peculiar to the young as the tree-e-e- certainly is. An oldbird with this brood called tick^ tick.''''Perley M. Silloway (1923) says of the behavior of the young: "Itis interesting to watch these youngsters when disturbed. They scatterlike young Bob-whites, some crouching in the sparse ground cover,while others may seek higher shelter. One was noticed clinging to thebare bark near the base of a large tree, like a growth on the bark, silentand watchful, seeking to avoid detection while the adults were scoldingforcibly under cover near by and trying to draw the brood from thethreatened danger."Miss Stanwood has sent me some very elaborate notes, based on herextensive observations on two nests of the winter wren, from whichthe following information has been gleaned. Apparently the maletakes no part in building the nest, in incubating the eggs, or in feedingthe young while they are in the nest, though he encourages his mateby singing his most glorious songs in the immediate vicinity. Hefrequently approaches the nest in full song, calls the female off thenest and feeds her ; he may, also, occasionally feed her while she is onthe nest. He, apparently, assists in the care of the young after theyleave the nest and while the family keeps together for some time.The female feeds the young at frequent intervals ; a large numberof observations indicate that the young are usually fed at intervalsvarying from 2 to 5 minutes but often as frequently as once a minute
;
rarely the intervals between feedings were as much as 10 or 15 minutes.The feedings continue from dawn to dusk but are most frequent duringthe early morning hours. The food given to the young, as far as couldbe determined, consisted of moths, including spruce-bud moths andtan geometrid moths, craneflies, cutworms, caterpillars of variouskinds, numerous small insects, and spiders. The female removes thefecal sacs as often as necessary, until the young are large enough toback up to the nest entrance and shoot their excrement over the edge.She broods the small young occasionally for periods of 2 or 3 minutes.At one nest the young left when they were about 19 days old. "Theyhad a soft, abrupt zee food call, which was very pretty and uttered con-stantly." They traveled about in a loose family party, often passingclose to the observer but paying no attention to her.Plumages.?The natal down, with which the nestling is only scantilycovered on the dorsal feather tracts, is between "drab" and "hairbrown" ; in a young bird, about half grown, that I took from the nestreferred to above, the last of this down still persists on the crown, whereit is more than a quarter of an inch long. On this bird the juvenalplumage was well out, on the dorsal and ventral tracts ; on the formerit is "russet," barred with dusky, on the flanks "sayal brown," and on thebreast pale buff, barred or mottled with dusky ; the wing feathers werejust beginning to break their sheaths. Dwight's (1900) description of
EASTERN WINTER WREN 153
a bird in full juvenal plumage is similar, but he adds : "Wings darkerand tail ruddier, both duskily barred, alternating on the outer prima-ries with pale butf, the coverts with whitish terminal dots. * * *Flanks and crissum deep russet. Orbital ring and faint superciliaryline dull buff."A partial postjuvenal molt occurs, beginning about the middle ofAugust, involving the contour plumage and the wing coverts, but notthe rest of the wings or the tail ; in the first winter plumage adults andyoung are practically indistinguishable. Adults have a complete post-nuptial molt in August but apparently no spring molt. The sexes arealike in all plumages.Food.?The winter wren is almost wholly insectivorous, and it isespecially useful in consuming many of the woodland insects and theirlarvae which are more or less injurious to our forests. W. L. McAtee(1926a) writes: "Vegetable food is of practically no interest to thewinter wren ; the bird wants flesh and its choice of meat most commonlystrikes upon such creatures as the beetles, true bugs, spiders, cater-pillars, and ants and other small hymenoptera. By contrast grass-hoppers, crickets, crane flies, moths, millipeds, and snails are minoritems of food, and dragon flies, daddy-longlegs, mites, pseudoscorpions,and sowbugs are merely tasted. Forest insects consumed are barkbeetles and other weevils, round-headed wood borers, leaf beetles, leafhoppers, plant lice, lace bugs, ants, sawflies, and caterpillars."Arthur H. Howell (1924) says that, in the South, "the bird has beenknown to capture boll weevils." And E. H. Forbush ( 1929 ) writes
:
"The winter wren feeds along the banks of streams, frequently peckingat something in the water, and sometimes in its eagerness to secure itsprey, it immerses the whole head. It may thus secure water insects.Miss Mabel E. Wiggins informed me that at East Marion, Long Island,N. y., on October 20, 1918, winter wrens were feeding on the berries ofthe Virginia juniper or red cedar."Beluwior.?The winter wren is a secretive little mite, the smallestof our wrens with the exception of the short-billed marsh wren. Be-cause of its retiring habits, it is often overlooked and is probably morecommon than most of us realize, for it does not advertise itself in thetree tops or pose to pour out its delicious song from some conspicuousperch as so many songsters do. We must look for it, if we wouldfind it, in its lowly retreats near the ground, in the tangles alongold stone walls, in the brush piles, and about fallen trees, prostratelogs, and wood piles. But it is really not shy and often quite indif-ferent to human presence. If we sit or stand quite still near its re-treat, we may see it hop up to some twig near us, perhaps within afew feet of us, bobbing or bouncing up and down, flirting its shorttail, and eyeing us inquisitively, but fearlessly. Edward J. F. Marx(1916) tells of one that actually alighted on the side of his coat while
154 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhe was standing motionless, clad in a brown suit; it may have mis-taken him for a tree.Taverner and Swales (1908) write of one that made itself familiaron their last day in camp at Point Pelee : "This last day one fellowbecame much interested in our tent and camping equipment. It ex-plored the former several times thoroughly, searching every crevice.It examined our methods of packing, and sampled the crumbs of ourcommissary, gleaning from the cracks of the table, and seemed gen-erally pleased with himself and us. Finally it flew to a neighboringbrush pile and scolded us as we took down the tent and piled thethings into the wagon."Although this wren may approach us fearlessly of its own freewill, it is another matter for us to find it in its sylvan retreats. Itsglorious song may lure us to catch a glimpse of the singer, but aswe push our way through the forest tangles, the voice seems to re-treat before us; it leads us on, now here now there, but it alwaysseems to come from somewhere else, and we are lucky if we catcha fleeting glimpse of the little brown bird.One seldom sees a winter wren in open flight, but Wendell Taber(MS.) was favored with the following observation: "The bird wasin a clump of catbrier at the top of a bank that shelved rapidly about20 feet down to the Ipswich River. Ultimately the wren rose up inthe air, but instead of heading inland and flying low it went out overthe river and downriver imtil lost to view, flying at an altitude of35 to 40 feet above the river and marshes. Shortly after the wrenhad attained its maxinmm height and started downriver, a bird cameand pursued it until both were out of sight. The latter bird was notidentified but was assumed to be a redwing." This was on April 30,which suggests that the wren was probably on migration ; the redwingmay have been chasing what it mistook for a marsh wren, with whichit is not on good terms.Taber (MS.) and Richard Stackpole "watched a winter wren thatseemed to have a regular route it covered. We were facing the opendoor of a barn. The narrow end of the barn was only a few feet tothe left of the door and a brook paralleled the narrow end. We wouldsee the wren disappear behind the barn, come out the open door, flyto its right to the brook, work the few yards down the brook, dis-appear behind the barn, and come out the open door again. Thewren did this several times."Voice.?The winter wren owes most of its charm and much of itsclaim to fame to its wonderful voice. Its charming song is a marvelousperformance for such a tiny bird. To hear it coming from the shadydepths of the northern forests is a delightful surprise, almost startlingamid the silence of those dark sylvan aisles. Its variety is entrancing
;
the full rich song fairly bursts upon the ear with a tinge of nature's
EASTERN WINTER WREN 155
wildness; and again, at close range we hear the soft whisper song, asubdued rendering of the same trills and cadences ; we cannot place thesinger, the music seems to come from everywhere, but we standamazed and thrilled.Bradford Torrey (1885) writes: "The great distinction of the win-ter wren's melody is its marked rhythm and accent, which give it amartial, fife-like character. Note tumbles over note in the true wrenmanner, and the strain comes to an end so suddenly that for the firstfew times you are likely to think that the bird has been interrupted.* * * The song is intrinsically one of the most beautiful."Rev. J. H. Langille (1884) refers to it: "Copious, rapid, prolongedand penetrating, having a great variety of the sweetest tones, anduttered in a rising and falling or finely undulating melody, from everyregion of these 'dim isles' this song calls forth the sweetest woodlandecho. It seems as if the very atmosphere became resonant. I standentranced and amazed, my very soul vibrating to this gushing melody,which seems at once expressive of the wildest joy and the tenderestsadness."Aretas A. Saunders (1929b) analyzes the song as follows : "There isusually a long trill in the middle of it, which is followed by a shortnote of lower pitch. I found that the majority of the songs were ofthree parts, the first ending with the trill and its short note; thesecond was a repetition of the first ; and the third, a sort of terminationin which there were usually no trills. The notes follow each other sorapidly that it is hard to catch them all, but there are often 30 to 50notes, in addition to the trills, in a single song."Albert R. Brand (1935 and 1938) made careful studies of the songsof many birds by recording bird sound on motion-picture film, givingus much valuable information on the subject. He found, on his tworecords of the winter wren's song, that the length of the song variedfrom 6.72 to 7.17 seconds, as against less than 2.5 seconds for the songof the song sparrow; the wren's song contained from 106 to 113separate notes, compared with 35 or 36 for the sparrow. "Two songsof the Winter Wren studied under the microscope show that an averageof 16 distinct notes with a corresponding number of distinct stopswere produced each second" (1935). He also found that the wren'ssong is very high in frequency, or pitch, exceeded only by the grass-hopper sparrow and a few other birds, mostly warblers. The grass-hopper sparrow, with one of the highest notes recorded, has an averagefrequency of 8,600 cycles, or vibrations, per second and a maximum of9,500. The winter wren has an average frequency of 5,000 cycles and amaximum of 8,775 in its highest note. Out of some 55 birds that helists only 12 have a higher average frequency than the winter wren.The active song period of the winter wren extends through springand through much of summer, up to the first week in August or later.
156 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIt is rarely heard singing on the fall migration, or even in winter. Inits breeding haunts it sings all day and occasionally into the evening.In addition to its song it has a variety of chirping notes or alarm notes,which have been recorded as churp^ or chick^ or crrrrip by differentobservers. Saunders (1929a) says: "Its alarm note may be written
'trrip' or 'tree'. Another note has been written 'quip-quap'."Since the above was written, Mr. Saunders has sent me the follow-ing additional notes on the song : 'The song consists of warbles, rapidnotes, and trills interspersed in a great variety of ways. Everysong I have recorded contains at least one trill and commonly two orthree. Only one contains more than four, but that one contains eight.In 13 of my records the song ends on its highest note, often terminat-ing in a series of rapid notes, so high that they lose their sweet qualityand become squeaky."My records show the lowest-pitched note to be D ' ' ' and thehighest G ' ' ' ', a range of two tones more than an octave and extend-ing 31/^ tones higher than the highest note on the piano. The averagesong ranges 3^ tones, but some only 2 tones and one 13 tones, goingone-half tone over the octave in range."The great majority of songs are 8 seconds long, or very near it.I have one of nine seconds, and several shorter ones, the shortest be-ing five seconds. But even this one is considerably longer than mostbird songs, if we except the long-continued singers. Songs often con-tain short pauses. Some of them, however, according to my ear, arecontinuous throughout, while others contain two or three pauses andothers 20 or 25."Wendell Taber tells me that he "watched a winter wren singing.At first the bill is open and moves somewhat, then the bill is stretchedunbelievably wide open, and the full last half, or more, of the songpours out with all its many variations of notes, during which periodthe bill remains motionless."Francis H. Allen (MS.) mentions two notes of the adult, a chrrrrwith a rising inflection, and a call, or alarm note chut very suggestiveof the song sparrow's familiar note, but repeated once or twice,whereas the sparrow's is single ; he calls the note of the young chi-chi-chi-chi^ etc., "suggesting a miniature belted kingfisher."Field marks.?The winter wren and the short-billed marsh wrenare the smallest wrens, both among the smallest of birds in easternNorth America, but the former is much darker and has a much shortertail, which is often carried erect or even pointed forward, and thelight line over the eye is not very conspicuous. The bobbing habitof the winter wren is characteristic.Enemies.?Mi'. Forbush (1929) reports thp following incident,which seems rather unusual ; he says : "Mrs. Mary P. Hall writes thaton September 30, 1926, she saw several winter wrens very much ex-
EASTERN WINTER WREN 157
cited about something. They hardly noticed her, and as she camenear she saw a chipmunk running with a bird in its mouth. The littlesquirrel sprang from the stone wall and went up a tree, dropping thebird as it did so. She picked up the victim, a winter wren."Fall and winter.?This little wren may have derived its name fromthe fact that a few hardy individuals venture to spend the winter inthe northern States and even occasionally in southern Ontario. Dur-ing mild winters they manage to make a fair living in the more shelteredplaces, but in severe winters many of them may perish from hungerand cold, especially when their meager food supply is buried under ablanket of deep snow. Mr. Forbush (1929) says that their deadbodies are found occasionally under piles of lumber or wood. Dr.John B. May told him that, at his summer camp in New Hampshire,
"on two different occasions winter wrens entered his camp buildingsthrough knot-holes in the walls, and, unable to find their w^ay outagain, perished, their shriveled bodies being found in the buildingsthe next spring."In January 1871, Mr. Brewster (1906) "found one in Waltham(Mass.), that had taken up its abode in an old, disused barn whichit entered by means of a conveniently placed knothole and fromwhich it made short excursions in search of food along a neigh-boring wall."Most of the wrens, however, migrate southward during the fall.We look for them in Massachusetts during the first cold weather inOctober. At this season they are often seen in the more open places andin some unexpected situations. They are occasionally seen abouthouses and gardens in towns and villages, and they even wander intothe cities. I have seen one in my yard in the center of the city ofTaunton, within a hundred yards of brick buildings. And Mr. Brew-ster (1906) reports one that was discovered, on October 15, 1899,
"crouching in the shelter of one of the massive granite columns whichsupport the front of the Boston Custom House."In the southern Alleghenies there is a downward migration fromthe coniferous forests on the mountain tops late in fall. Keferringto Mount Mitchell, in western North Carolina, Thomas D. Burleigh(1941) says of the winter wren: "Breeding abundantly in the thickfir and spruce woods at the top of the mountain this hardy littlebird lingers in the fall until winter blizzards force it to a loweraltitude. The first hint of milder weather sees its reappearance, sofor 10 months out of the average year it can be found on the higherridges. Exceptional winter will influence its movements to a certainextent, but it can invariably be seen on Mt. Mitchell from the latterpart of March until the middle of November, and has been recordedthere as early as February 6, 1931, and as late as December 6, 1932."Dr. Eugene E. Murphey (1937), writing of its haunts in the
158 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMmiddle Savannah Valley, says: "In many places throughout thevalley, cypress and hardwood have been logged out, leaving behindscattered deciduous trees and a vast array of stumps about four feetin height which are overgrown with matted vines and brambles anda fairly thick growth of ground-loving and creeping plants, in-cluding many ferns. Here the Winter Wren spends his sojourn."M. G. Vaiden, of Rosedale, Miss., writes to me that this wren seemsto be from "fairly to very common here during winter in suitablelocalities, such as dry open woods." Throughout the other GulfStates and northern Florida, the winter wren frequents mainly thebrushy woodlands and is very quiet and retiring in its habits. WhileArthur H. Howell (1924) was hunting geese on an island near MuscleShoals, "one of these little wrens also spent the day there, dodgingabout in a pile of brush and running in and out of a log pile. Hescarcely moved 10 feet all day and often came within 3 or 4 feetof" Mr. Howell's face without showing any signs of alarm.DISTKIBTJnONRange.?In America from just north of latitude 60? south almost tothe southern limits of the United States.Breeding range.?The winter wren breeds north to Alaska (Aleu-tian Islands, Pribilofs, and Kodiak Island) ; southern Mackenzie(Great Slave Lake) ; southern Manitoba (Hillside Beach) ; northernOntario (Lac Seul, Moose Factory, and Lake Abitibi, probably)
;
southern Quebec (upper St. Maurice River and Godbout) ; and New-foundland (Bard Harbor). East to Newfoundland (Bard Harborand Nicholsville) ; Nova Scotia (Halifax and Seal Island) ; northernMassachusetts (Winchendon) ; Rhode Island (Kingston) ; New York(Adirondack and Catskill Mountains) ; and through the mountainsto northern Georgia (Brasstown Bald). South to northern Georgia(Brasstown Bald) ; western Maryland (Accident) ; northern Michi-gan (Douglas Lake, Blaney, and Palmer) ; northern Minnesota(Onamia and Cass Lake) ; northwestern Montana (Flathead Lake) ;northern Idaho (Coeur d'Alene) ; and southern California (Porters-ville). West to California (Portersville) and north through theSierra Nevada and the coastal ranges of California, Oregon, Wash-ington, and British Columbia to Alaska (Aleutian and PribilofIslands).Winter range.?The winter range is discontinuous. The westernrange extends north to southeastern Alaska (Craig and Juneau cas-ually) ; and southern British Columbia (Comox and Okanagan Land-ing). East to southern British Columbia (Okanagan Landing)through western Washington (Olympia and Camas) ; western Oregon
EASTERN WINTER WREN 159(Beaverton and Sweet Home) ; and the Sierra Nevada in California.South to southern California (Santa Barbara and San Dimas Can-yon) ; and west to the Pacific Ocean.The eastern section of the winter range extends north to southeast-ern Nebraska (Hastings and Omaha) ; central Missouri (Warrens-burg and St. Louis) ; Ohio (Toledo and Cleveland) ; southern Ontario(Toronto) ; Connecticut (Hartford) ; and Massachusetts (Taunton).East to Massachusetts (Taunton and Woods Hole) ; and through theAtlantic coast States southward to Florida (New Smyrna). Southto central Florida (New Smyrna, Orlando, and casually to St. Lucie)
;
the Gulf coast to eastern Texas (Giddings and Victoria). West toeastern Texas (Giddings and Bonham) ; eastern Oklahoma (Caddo) ;eastern Kansas (Clearwater and Manhattan) ; and eastern Nebraska(Hastings).The above range applies to the entire species in North America. Ithas been broken up into 10 subspecies or geographical races. Theeastern winter wren (T. t. hiemalis) breeds from southern Alberta andMinnesota east to the Atlantic coast and south to West Virginia. Thesouthern winter wren {T. t. pullus) occurs in the southern Appala-chians from Virginia to Georgia. The western winter wren {T. t. pa-cificus) breeds from Prince William Sound, Alaska, east to northernAlberta, and from central California east to the Kocky Mountains.Six races have been described from Alaska : the Aleutian wren ( T. t.meligerus) on Attn at the extreme western end; the Kiska wren {T. t.kiskensis) on Kiska and Little Kiska Islands; the Alaska wren {T. t.alascensis) on the Pribilof Islands ; the Tanaga wren {T. t. tanagensis)on Tanaga and probably adjacent islands; Stevenson's winter wren( T. t. stevensoni) on Amak and Amagat Island ; the Unalaska wren{T. t. 'petrophilus) on Unalaska, Amaknak, and Akutan Islands; theSemidi wren {T. t. semidiensis) on the Semidi Islands ; and the Kodiakwren {T. t. helleri) on Kodiak Island.Spring migration.?Some late dates of spring departure are : Flor-ida?Orlando, March 10. Georgia?Athens, April 14. Mississippi
?
Biloxi, April 16. Louisiana?New Orleans, April 7. North Caro-lina?Kaleigh, April 21. Virginia?^Lynchburg, April 20. District ofColumbia?^Washington, May 1. Maryland?Hagerstown, April 10.Tennessee?Knoxville, May 1. Kentucky?Bowling Green, May 3.Pennsylvania?Pittsburgh, April 20. New Jersey?Elizabeth, April29.Early dates of spring arrival are : Pennsylvania?Harrisburg, April5. New Jersey?Elizabeth, March 5. New York?Plattsburg, April1. Vermont?^Woodstock, March 30. Maine?Presque Isle, April 17.New Brunswick?Scotch Lake, March 29. Nova Scotia?Wolfville.May 3. Quebec?Quebec, May 6. Ohio?Columbus, March 30. Indi-
160 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMana?Lafayette, March 17. Illinois?Chicago, April 8. Ontario
?
Toronto, April 6. Michigan?Sault Ste. Marie, April 15. IowaDavenport, March 31. Wisconsin?Sheboygan, March 25. Minne-sota?Minneapolis, April 5. South Dakota?Faulkton, April 10.Manitoba?^Winnipeg, April 19. Montana?Fortine, April 23. Brit-ish Columbia?Okanagan Landing, March 16.Fall migration.?^Late dates of fall departure are : British Colum-bia?Okanagan Landing, November 9. Montana?Fortine, October 9.South Dakota?Faulkton, October 5. Minnesota?St. Paul, October18. Wisconsin?Madison, October 30. Iowa?Sioux City, October 5.Michigan?Sault Ste. Marie, October 11. Ontario?Ottawa, Novem-ber 1. Illinois?Glen Ellyn, October 25. Indiana?Fort Wayne, Oc-tober 29, Quebec?Montreal, October 27. New Brunswick?St. John,October 12. Maine?Dover, November 5. Vermont?Kutland, Oc-tober 29. Massachusetts?Boston, November 4. New York?Ithaca,October 20. New Jersey?Morristown, November 3. PennsylvaniaState College, November 23.Early dates of fall arrival are : Maryland?Hagerstown, September10. District of Columbia?Washington, September 25. VirginiaLexington, September 28. North Carolina?Chapel Hill, September23. Georgia?Atlanta, October 12. Florida?Pensacola, October 20.Missouri?Columbia, October 8. Kentucky?^Lexington, October 1.Tennessee?Nashville, October 14. Oklahoma?Oklahoma City, No-vember 5. Louisiana?New Orleans, October 24. Mississippi?Biloxi,October 21.Casual records.?The winter wren has bred once in Wyoming: anest containing two young ready to fly was found in the FreezeoutHills on July 15, 1897; birds were seen west of Fort Collins and inEstes Park, Colo., in July 1896, but no evidence of breeding was found.This species was seen in the Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico inSeptember 1902 and at Coony, N. Mex., on December 26, 1889, theonly records for the State ; in Arizona there are three migration rec-ords, two in April and one in October, and one of a specimen takenabout 35 miles north of Fort Verde on January 6, 1887. It is anuncommon winter visitant to southern Utah, specimens in Zion Canyonon January 1, 1936, and February 1, 1942.Egg dates.?Alaska : 11 records. May 20 to July 23.California : 29 records, March 20 to July 19 ; 15 records, April 20 toMay 12, indicating the height of the season.Labrador : 5 records, June 28 and 29.New Hampshire : 8 records, May 14 to May 21.Ontario : 11 records. May 18 to June 18.Washington : 19 records, April 15 to June 22 ; 10 records, April 22to May 9.
SOUTHERN WINTER WREN 161TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES PULLUS BurleighSOUTHERN WINTER WRENThomas D. Burleigh (1935) discovered and named this wren. Hesays that it is similar to the eastern winter wren, "but decidedly darkerand less rufescent above, the underparts lighter brown, with the ver-miculations of the abdomen and flanks heavier; wing longer; billsmaller and more slender." It breeds, he says, "in the CanadianZone of the southern Appalachians from we.stern North Carolina(probably Virginia), to northern Georgia, occurring in winter at alower altitude in this same region."
"This southern race of the winter wren," continues Burleigh, "canalways be easily recognized in either sex by its distinctly darker upper-parts, a characteristic common to other birds limited in their distribu-tion to this general region. Even in worn breeding plumage thischaracter is at once evident."The .subspecies description is based on eight North Carolina speci-mens, five from Mount Mitchell, two from the Great Smoky Moun-tains, and one from Kocky Knob.TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES MELIGERUS OberholserALEUTIAN WRENHABITSThe 1910 Check-list treated the Alaska wren, of the Pribilof Islands,and the Aleutian wren, of the western Aleutian Islands, as two distinctspecies and listed both as specifically distinct from the winter wrensfrom other parts of North America. A thorough .study of all the OldWorld and New World forms of the genus Nannus, by Dr. Harry C.Oberholser (1919), has demonstrated that all the North Americanforms of this genus are only subspecifically distinct; furthermore, heclaims that these, and all the Old World forms as well, are all subspecie^sof the Old World species Nannus troglodytes. The framers of our 1931Check-list evidently do not agree with this latter concept, but they dolist all the North American forms as subspecies of Nannus hiemalis.The Aleutian wren {Troglodytes troglodytes meUgerus), the subjectof this sketch, was formerly supposed to inhabit all the western Aleu-tian Islands, from Attn to Kiska; but now Dr. Oberholser (1919) re-stricts this name to the wrens of Attu Island and possibly the neigh-boring Agattu Island; and he names three new races for Tanaga,Kiska, and Unalaska Islands. He says that the Aleutian wren "isone of the most deeply colored of the North American forms and isapparently a well-ditlerentiated race."We found wrens of this species on all the islands we visited in theAleutian Chain, from Unalaska on the eastern end to Attu in thewest. It was one of the pleasantest surprises of our trip to find these
162 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMdelightful little songsters on these wholly treeless islands, where theonly cover was the few stunted willows that grew in the shelteredhollows, or the piles of loose rocks along the shore ; they seemed quiteout of place in such surroundings, so different from the shady foresthaunts of the closely related eastern winter wren. We found themfirst in an inland rocky ravine along the bed of a cool mountain streamand again in a grassy valley where there were a few scattered rockson which they could perch and pour out their rich songs, adding arare charm to this cheerless wilderness. But, most surprising of all,we often heard the glorious, bubbling song of the winter wren comingfrom the bleak, bare, rocky shores, where loose rocks and boulders werepiled in confusion at the bases of the cliffs, washed by cold oceanspray and often enveloped in dense, chilly fogs. Here he sits and singshis thrilling, soulful song, perched on the pinnacle of some damp rock,or the brancli of some drifted snag, buffeted by the gales that sweepdown from snow-capped mountains, or drenched by frequent rain andsnow squalls, all too prevalent in that wretched climate. He musthave a brave and cheerful heart under his tiny coat of thick plumage.A. H. Clark (1945) writes: "The lively bubbling trill of the winterwrens, the smallest of the Aleutian birds, is a characteristic bird noteof the islands. These vivacious and pert little creatures are common,always keeping close to the sea, along the high rocky shores or in thelower portions of the valleys, where their surprisingly loud and clearnotes betray their presence. These wrens are variable, and several dif-ferent local forms are recognized in the Aleutian population."Nesting.?We did not succeed in finding a nest of any of the wrensof the Aleutian Islands, but Lucien M. Turner (1886) says: "Matingoccurs early in May or late in April. Nidification begins immediately.The nest is placed in a crevice in the face of a cliff or amongst the largetussocks of wild rye or other grasses. The nest is large and well built
;
coarse grasses and roots form the foundation, and as the nest nearscompletion smaller grasses are selected. The interior of the nest con-tains few feathers of various species of birds. The walls of the nestare well carried up, and in some instances form a partial roof overthe nest, leaving a hole in one side as an entrance. Five to nine eggsare laid ; they are pure white in color."He says further, as to their habits
:
They remain on these islands during the entire year. * * Their food con-sists of insects, and occasionally a few seeds will be found in their crops. * * *Their note is a prolonged twitter of several modulations and repeated at shortintervals. When surprised, or when they come upon an object that excites theircuriosity, a rapid and long rattle is sounded as an alarm, soon to be answeredby a second bird. These two keep up the sound until all the Wrens within hearingassemble to investigate the cause. As many as a dozen will surround theobject, and approach so close that the outstretched hand might capture them.The least motion, however, disperses them so quickly that one wonders wherethey have disappeared. They, at these times, hide under the stalks of the weedsor grass. * * * At the approach of winter the bird becomes very familiar,
KISKA WREN 163
and is frequently found on the window-sills searching for insects. On oneoccasion I heard a gentle tapping at my back window; as I had frequentlyheard the same noise, I carefully drew the curtain partly aside, and saw a Wrenendeavoring to obtain a fly that was inside of the pane of glass. The bird didnot appear to be disturbed by my presence.The above account is based on observations made on various islandsin the xVleutian Chain, from Unalaska westward, and must not beconstrued as applying especially to the wrens of Attn Island. Theobservations were made before the species was subdivided as it is now.TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES KISKENSIS (Oberholser)KISKA WRENHABITSIn naming this wren. Dr. Oberholser (1919) described it as similarto meligerus, the preceding form, "but wing, tail, and tarsus shorter;upper parts lighter, less rufescent (more grayish) brown, and poste-riorly more uniform (less distinctly barred) ; lower parts more deeplyochraceous, and posteriorly somewhat less heavily barred with black-ish." The eight specimens from Kiska Island, on which this sub-species is based, exhibit individual variations which suggest inter-gradation with both the Attn Island bird and the Unalaska bird.Most of the wrens of this race that we saw on Kiska Island wereliving on the shore of Kiska Harbor. A high, rocky cliff, on which apair of Peale's falcons were evidently nesting, rose above a narrowbeach strewn with masses of broken rocks and boulders, with scat-tered tufs of long grass growing in some places among the rocks.Pacific eiders were nesting among these tufts of grass, pigeon guille-mots had their eggs hidden far under the rocks, and on a grassy slopesome Aleutian song sparrows were singing songs reminding us ofhome. Here the wrens were darting in and out among the rocks,climbing over them, or perching on their tops to sing, often bobbingup and down in true winter-wren fashion. Their songs were muchlike those of the eastern winter wren, but it seemed to me that theywere louder and richer; perhaps they sounded more beautiful bycontrast with their bleak surroundings, the rocky background, thepounding surf, and the cries of sea birds.TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES ALASCENSIS BairdALASKA WRENPlate 31HABITSThis race of the winter wren group is now supposed to be confinedto the Pribilof Islands, on St. George and St. Paul Islands. The type,which was obtained by Dr. Dall on the former island, was an im-mature bird in its first plumage.
164 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDr. Oberholser (1919) describes this race as similar to the Kiskabird, "but wing and tail longer ; bill decidedly, tarsus and middle toewithout claw somewhat, shorter ; upper parts darker, more rufescent
;
lower parts rather more deeply ochraceous, and posteriorly with nar-rower, less deeply blackish bars." It seems to be subspecifically dis-tinct from oil the birds of the Aleutian Islands, including Unalaska.Dr. Nelson (1887) wrote: "One of the most peculiar facts in itshistory is its abundance on the island of St. George, which is about 180miles north of the Aleutian Islands, whereas, on St. Paul Island, only27 miles distant from St. George, and apparently suitable in everyway for its presence, there is not a single record of its occurrence;and Elliott states that he searched carefully for it during his residenceat that place." This statement could not be made truthfully today,for specimens have since been taken on St. Paul Island. We failed tofind it there, but our stay was very limited; we failed to find it onWalrus Island in the same group, where we made a more thoroughinvestigation of its wonderful bird life.More recently. Dr. Harold Heath (1920), who spent the greaterpart of May and the first half of June 1918 on St. George Island,has added much to our knowledge of this wren and its habits. As toits distribution on these islands he says : "Until recent years the wrensof the Pribilof Islands were strictly limited to the island of St.George. In 1915, however, six individuals were observed by Dr.Hanna on St. Paul Island, and of these, three were secured. None,so far as I now recall, have since been noted there, but in the sum-mer of 1918 a considerable number were seen on Otter Island, a smallbody of land 4 miles to the southward."In a still more recent paper, Preble and McAtee (1923) state thatMr. Hanna took two of his specimens on St. Paul Island on October29, 1914, and the third on May 16, 1915 ; he also reported that, during1915, George Haley saw 11 individuals on Otter Island, that they havesince become well established there, and that they bred there in 1916,1917, and 1918. These authors conclude
:
It seems likely, therefore, unless the species meets with a reverse on OtterIsland from some cause, that it will in time become regularly established asa breeder on St. Paul, and that, therefore, the likelihood of the species sur-viving will be strengthened.During the winter of 1916-1917 St. George was visited by an unusual num-ber of gyrfalcons, which preyed upon the wrens and rosy finches to such anextent that they were almost extirpated. G. Dallas Hanna states that in May1917, he found not over six pairs of wrens during a trip made entirely aroundthe island. Since then, however, as elsewhere detailed, the species has be-come at least fairly common again and has even spread to the other main is-lands, previously unoccupied.Nesting.?It was many years after the discovery of the Alaska wren
ALASKA WREN 165that its nesting habits were fully described by a competent natural-ist. Earlier accounts were based on reports by the natives or on nestsand eggs collected by them. The earliest account came from Dr.Elliott Coues (1875) ; he quotes from the manuscript notes of HenryW. Elliott, who spent parts of 3 years on St. George Island, as fol-lows : "Its nest is built in small, deep holes and crevices in the cliffs.I have not myself seen it, but the natives say that it lays from 8 to10 eggs, in a nest made of soft, dry grass and feathers, roofed over,with an entrance at the side to the nest-chamber, thus being of elab-orate construction."The attempts of various naturalists, who visited the island dur-ing subsequent years, to find the nest of this elusive bird were notsuccessful until 1918, when Dr. Heath (1920) made a special effortto solve the problem and succeeded in finding over 16 nests. He hasgiven us the following full account of the nesting haunts of theAlaskan wren, the difficulties to be encountered in hunting for thenests, and a description of the nests
:
Throughout the summer at least, these diminutive creatures confine theiractivities to the perpendicular cliffs and the adjacent boulder-strewn beachwhere they prove to be more than usually inconspicuous, for several reasons.In the first place their brownish coats harmonize almost perfectly with theweathered basaltic rock and the encrusting lichens, and this, together withtheir habit of slipping along the face of the clifE by very short flights, or mov-ing mouse-like through the grass, or entering crevices of the cliff or beneaththe beach boulders to appear again several feet distant, renders it most difficultto follow their movements for many minutes together. Also, during the monthof May and the first half of June?the length of my sojourn on St. George Island
?
the weather was anything but ideal. Rain, dense fogs, or at least heavilyovercast skies, with piercing winds and a temperature of not over 50 degrees,placed a heavy tax on one's powers of endurance and eyesight. Furthermore,the almost incessant incoming and outgoing stream of least, crested and paroquetauklets interpersed with kittiwakes, puffins and murres, and the movementsof these species on the cliffs, produce a bewildering effect which tends to blotout minor details. * * *At the outset be it known that the male is almost utterly useless whendepended upon to disclose the presence of the nest, until after the young arehatched. In carefree fashion he explores the cracks and crannies of the cliffsfor half-frozen bugs and flies, or repairs to a commanding position at the uppermargin of the cliff, where he delivers himself of his unoiled song; or tiring ofthis he flies a quarter of a mile or so along the coast to sneak back a fewminutes later to the same old stand. In three instances only, have I seen themale fly to the neighborhood of the female or the nest during the building orincubation period, and his stay in every case was of brief duration.During this time the female may or may not be in evidence, and if discoveredher activities are usually found to be essentially the same as her mate. If soand an hour's watching will generally settle the matter?it is economy of effortto postpone the search for the nest until the morrow.However, if the female is in tlie midst of house building, no better time canbe found to locate her nest for, in spite of intruders, even at a distance of a758066?48 12
166 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfew feet, slie works with feverish activity and with a directness of flight thatcan scarcely escape the observation of even an untrained eye.Nevertheless, this period of construction is frequently interrupted by flightsto the beach or along the cliff in search of insects, or for a period of song on somelofty point, or she too may dash out of sight far up the coast to return aftera period of from 5 to 30 minutes.Another favorable time for the location of the nest is during the incubationperiod. Four nests under observation showed that the female remains uponthe eggs, whatever the character of the day or the stage of incubation, for aperiod ranging from IS to 21 minutes. She then feeds from 2 to 5 minutes.Here also her flight is relatively direct, in marked contrast to her usual journeyalong the cliffs, and is unmistakable after a brief experience. The recordedhabits of several other birds indicate a fairly definite daily program during thebreeding season, but, so far as I know, none are so timed to the minute as theAlaska Wren.All of the nests discovered in 1918 were in the faces of cliffs anywhere from25 to 100 feet in height, and were placed at elevations varying from 8 to 100feet. The spot chosen may be a crevice between shattered blocks of rock, orin a small blowhole in the ancient lava flow, or, more frequently, underneathbanks of moss where rain and frost have excavated cavities of tidy size. Inthree instances the nesting site had been chosen the year before, the new nestbeing built upon the remains of the old one. In my experience the nest is neverhidden far beneath the general surface of the clitf. Of 12 nests described inmy field notes 4 were plainly visible, while the others were merely concealedby an overhanging fringe of grass or moss or by a few small shattered scales ofrock. Four other nests were placed in cracks at a considerable elevation andin overhanging cliffs that effectually prevented a close examination.The nest of the Alaska Wren is indeed a work of art, with the materials com-posing it bearing a definite relation to the nature of its surroundings. Generallyspeaking, it is a globular, more or less bulky affair with the entrance at one side.When situated in a lava bubble or in cavities where the adjacent rock is rela-tively dry, it usually consists of an external sheath of moss, thick or thin, ac-cording to the size of the space to be filled. Where the soil inclines to be soggythe roof alone is built of moss (at least in three instances) to absorb tlie moistureand prevent its precipitation upon the sitting female. Farther down, at thesides of the nest, it rests upon a meshwork of grass and roots that not onlydrains away the water from above, but permits of rapid drying. To determinethe correctness of this theory a nest of this type was brought in from the field,and was left overnight under the slow drip from a water tap. The next morningthe mossy roof was soaked and the grassy base adrip, but not a drop of waterhad made its way into the interior. * * *The lining of the nest forms a heavy feltwork of which delicate roots and finefilamentous lichen form the chief constituents. With these are usually associatedthe feathers of the least auklet (and other birds to a less degree), fox hairs, andin late years, the hair of the reindeer.There is a nest in the Thayer collection in Cambridge, which Ihave examined. It was collected by E. C. Crompton on St. GeorgeIsland on May 20, 1922, taken from a crevice in the rocks of a cliffon the seashore, about 20 feet up. It is quite bulky, being mademainly of dry grasses and weed stems, mixed with green mosses andlichens and a few feathers; it is lined with small feathers and veryfine white hairs. These white hairs were probably from the bleached-
ALASKA WREN 167
out winter coat of the blue fox ; those examined microscopically byDr. Heath proved to be from this source.Eggs.?The six eggs that came with the above nest are ovate andhave very little gloss. They are pure white; some are nearly, orquite, immaculate, but most of them are sparingly sprinkled, mainlyabout the larger end, with fine pinpoints of the palest brown.The earlier reports by natives that this wren lays as many as 10or 12 eggs should not be taken seriously ; probably the natives werecareless or could not count accurately. Dr. Heath (1920) says:
"In the majority of the nests examined this year the number of eggslaid is 7. Six may be the complement. * * * ^ young, intelli-gent native boy told me that he had examined several wren's nestsduring the past 10 years, and had never found more than 7 eggsor young." He says that the eggs "are more or less peppered withreddish dots." The eggs in his photograph all show these mark-ings plainly (pi. 31). The measurements of 34 eggs average 17.0 by13.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 19.0by 13.7, 18.0 by 14.0, 14.0 by 13.0, and 17.1 by 12.2 millimeters.Young.?Dr. Heath (1920) writes: "A nearly as I can judge fromone pair of wrens, the period of incubation lasts 11 days, and the youngin this same nest were fed for 22 days. The incubation periodseems too short and the altricial period too long. When the eggsare hatched the male abandons his usual haunts, and with his matecollects insects from foggy morn to yet more foggy eve. Wlien thisbrood is dismissed a second one may be reared the same season. In1918, for example, E. C. Crompton, Government agent on St. George,reported to me the discovery of a nest that was left by the youngabout the middle of July. During the following week the femaledeposited a second set of eggs."Plumages.?Ridgway (1904) says of the young: "Essentially likeadults, but brown of upper parts more rufescent, flanks and undertail-coverts less distinctly barred (bars sometimes obsolete), andfeathers of under parts more or less distinctly margined with brownor dusky." Nelson (1887) says that the young "may be distinguishedfrom the adult by a smoky brown shade on the sides of the head,chin, and throat, and a brighter rusty-red on the back, especially onthe rump. In the adults the bill is longer and proportionallyslenderer, and the faint, light superciliary line is better marked."As far as we can tell from the scanty material available, the moltsare apparently similar to those of the eastern winter wren.Food.?Yv^l^ and McAtee (1923) write:Of the 11 stomachs of Alaska wrens available 9 were examined some timeago by less discriminating methods than those at present in use, and it is onlypossible, therefore, to indicate the nature of the food in very general terms.The sustenance was entirely animal and included the following groups
:
168 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMAmpliipods, 24.1 percent; two-winged flies (partly Borboridae), 24.1 percent;beetles (including ground and rove beetles), 14.3 percent; bugs (Hemiptera),13.2 percent ; caterpillars, 12.9 percent ; and Hymenoptera, 11.4 percent.A recently examined stomacli contained the following items: Six beetles ofthe sexton-beetle family (Lyrosoina opaca) , 12 percent; rove beetles (Olophrumftiscum and 2 Liparoccplialus hrevipennis) , 3 percent; three small parasiticwasps (including Phygadeuon sp. and Plesignathus sp.), 1 percent; remains ofdung flies {Scatophaga sp.) and perhaps other flies, 74 percent; one mite of anundescribed genus of the family Gamasidae, trace; and amphipod remains, 10percent.Another stomach, lately examined, taken October 29, 1914, contained remainsof 24 or more rove beetles ( Staphylinidae) , 70 percent ; 4 beach beetles (AegialitesdeUlis), 19 percent; 1 other beetle, 1 percent; and a few files, 10 percent.Behavior.?The behavior of the birds during the breeding seasonhas been described by Dr. Heath above. Mr. Elliott's notes, quotedby Dr. Coues (1875) , say that "the male is very gay during the periodof mating and incubation, flying incessantly from plant to plant orrock to rock, singing a rather shrill and very loud song, and making,for a small bird, a great noise."Winter.?The destruction of these wrens by gyrfalcons in winterhas been referred to above. Mr. Elliott told Dr. Nelson (1887) that
"during exceptionally severe winters on the island of St. George,large numbers of these birds die of exposure, so that only the hardiestamong them survive. But the rapidity with which they multiplybrings their numbers up to the former standard in a very few seasons."TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES TANAGENSIS (Oberholser)TANAGA WRENHABITSDr. Oberholser (1919) has given the above name to the wrens ofTanaga, Adak, and Atka Islands in the Aleutian Chain. The sub-species description is based on nine specimens, collected on the aboveislands, mostly by the members of our expedition in 1911. He says thatit is similar to the Kiska bird, "but wing somewhat longer; upper partsmore rufescent and rather lighter, especially on the lower back, rump,and upper tail-coverts; posterior lower parts on the average lessheavily barred, and with the bars less blackish ; the entire under sur-face averaging lighter and somewhat more ochraceous." He says thatit is nearest to the bird of the Pribilof Islands, "but its bill is muchlonger and its upper parts lighter."On Atka Island we found the birds in a sheltered, grassy hollow witha few rocks scattered through it, and in rocky ravines and gulches,where it was in full song. On Adak Island they were on the rockyshores of the Bay of Waterfalls. They doubtless occur in both types ofhabitat on all of these islands. Their habits are evidently the sameas those of the other island subspecies.
UNALASKA WREN 169TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES PETROPHILUS (Oberholser)UNALASKA WRENHABITSDr. Oberholser (1919) gives this new name to the wrens found onUnalaska Island and the neighboring islands of Amaknak and Akutan.On the basis of 15 specimens from these localities, he describes thenew subspecies as similar to the Pribilof bird, "but wing shorter ; billlonger; upper parts lighter, much more rufescent; lower parts decid-edly paler, and posteriorly with narrower and lighter bars."We noticed nothing different from the habits of these wrens else-where in the wrens we saw on these islands, but Dr. Nelson (1887) hasthis to say about the haunts and habits of this subspecies
:
On May 13, 1877, I landed, during a heavy gale, on the island of Akoutan, justeast of Unalaska, and was making my way cautiously along the rock-strewnbeach, half expecting a fall of fragments from the beetling cliffs above to jointhe rocky mass which had already fallen. While occupied in searching cautiouslyfor a firm footing, a faint, wiry, note struck my ear and brought me to a suddenstandstill. All about lay huge blocks of riven lava, from which arose the over-hanging crags ; a little back a more sloping bluff presented its face, the inequalitiesof which were dotted by scattered grass and other vegetation, now dead andyellow, or in spots were flecked with patches of snow. As my eye scanned thisabrupt slope, the author of the notes was seen clinging to a dwarf willow bush atthe very brow of the bluflE, over which the wind came with great force, beatingthe bush back and forth as if it would uproot it.* * * The last of September and first of October, 1881, while the Corwiulay at Unalaska, I had still further opportunities for studying this little-knownspecies in its home. They were very common everywhere on the lower portionsof the island, wherever the rank grass and other plants, combined with thestunted bushes, offered a fitting shelter. Here the birds were seen repeatedly,swinging on the projecting sprays or flitting busily from point to point, andshowing a peculiar sprightliness and activity common to it and its kind.TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES SEMIDIENSIS (Brooks)SEMIDI WRENOnly two specimens of this wren from the Semidi Islands, on thesouth side of the Alaska Peninsula, to which it seems to be confined,were available for study when Dr. Oberholser (1919) described it assimilar to the Unalaska bird, "but wing, tail, and bill somewhat longer
;
upper parts less rufescent (more grayish) and somewhat darker;under surface paler, less deeply ochraceous, and posteriorly rathermore heavily barred." He says that it differs from the Pribilof bird
"in its decidedly longer bill and somewhat longer tarsus and middletoe; somewhat lighter, less rufescent upper parts; and paler, lessochraceous lower surface."Nothing seems to have been recorded about its haunts or habits.
170 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMTROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES HELLERI (Osgood)KODIAK WRENThis race seems to be confined to Kodiak Island. Dr. Wilfred H.Osgood (1901) named it in honor of Edmund Heller, who was withhim when the type was collected. He described it as "slightly largerand paler colored than" the western winter wren, and remarked thatit "is merely another illustration of the tendency of west coast birdswhich range as far north as Kodiak to become pale in their northernhabitat."Dr. Oberholser (1919) calls it similar to the Unalaska bird, "butsmaller, especially the bill; upper surface much darker, more sooty(less rufescent) ; dark bars of lower back, rump, and upper tail-covertsmore conspicuous; lower parts darker, and posteriorly more heavilydark-barred."It is apparently one of the rarest of the subspecies, and very littleseems to be known about it.TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES STEVENSONI OberholserSTEVENSON'S WINTER WRENDr. Harry C. Oberholser (1930) has split off another finely drawnrace from the many recognized subspecies of Alaskan wrens, to whichhe has given the above name. He describes it as similar to the Una-laska wren, "but upper parts, and to a less extent, also the lower sur-face, more grayish or sooty (less rufescent) in both adult and juvenalplumages ; posterior lower parts in adult on the average less heavilyspotted with fuscous ; bill and middle toe averaging slightly longer."He says that it is found on "Amak Island and Amagat Island,Alaska ; and probably also other neighboring islands and the south-western end of the Alaska Peninsula."As in most of the other Alaska races of this species there is con-siderable individual variation in this new form; and the differences,while very readily recognizable in a series, are, of course, to some ex-tent overlapped by individuals of the most closely related subspecies,Nannus troglodytes petrophilus. It is interesting, however, to notethat the color differences are fully as noticeable in the juvenal plumageas in the adult, as is well shown by the series of 10 young and 5 adultsfrom Amak and Amagat Islands that have been examined."TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES PACIFICUS BairdWESTERN WINTER WRENPlates 32, 33HABITSBaird (1864) , in his original description of this wren, says : "I find,on comparing series of eastern birds with those from the Pacific
WESTERN WINTER WREN 171
slope, that the latter are considerably darker in color above, with littleor almost none of the whitish spotting among the dusky bars so char-acteristic of eastern specimens. The under parts are more rufous,the tarsi appear shorter, and the claws decidedly larger."Eidgway (1904) describes it as similar to the eastern bird, "butdarker and more richly colored; brown of upper parts darker, morerusty, more unifonn, the back, etc., much less distinctly barred, oftenquite uniform; color of throat, chest, etc., much deeper and brighter,moie tawny-cinnamon or light russet ; bill straighter and more slender."The breeding range of the western winter wren extends along thePacific slope from Prince William Sound, Alaska, to central Califor-nia, and in the Rocky Mountan region from western Alberta to north-ern Colorado.The haunts and habits of the western winter wren are similar tothose of its eastern relative, though the environment is somewhatdifferent. The eastern bird is content to make its summer home indense forests of spruces and firs that grow to only moderate heights,while its western relative lives in the deep forests of giant conifersthat so heavily clothe the northwest coast from sea level to the limitof trees, and in the deep shade of the grand redwood forests ofCalifornia.S. F. Rathbun tells me that it is one of the few birds to be foimdin the deep forests of western Washington, even in the densest places.He finds it in the forests bordering the beaches, at lake level inlandand up to 5,000 feet in the Olympic Mountains. Referring to MountRainier, in Washington, Taylor and Shaw (1927) write : "The westernwinter wren seems as much a part of the forest floor as the mosses,huckleberry vines, huge logs, and upturned roots of his surround-ings. * * * "^i^en the traveler emerges from the dark woodsonto the open meadows or well-lighted brushy burns the wrens becomemuch less numerous, for they are fond of shadows. They are oftenfound at a considerable distance from water on some forest-coveredhillside. Once, indeed, they were noted in clumps of alpine firs onan open and well-lighted hillside with a southern exposure."Grinnell and Storer (1924) say that, in the Yosemite region, this,the smallest and most seclusive of the wrens, "lives at the middlealtitudes, amid freshest-bared tangles and rootlets and accumulationsof drift materials along shaded stream courses." W. A. Kent writesto me that, at the head waters of the Kern River in the Sierra Nevadashe found that the western winter wren had nested at an elevation of11,000 feet. Dawson (1923) says : "The Western Winter Wren is oneof the commonest birds in the humid coast belt of western Californiaas far south as middle Monterey County. Not only is it the mostcharacteristic inhabitant of rugged stream beds and romantic dells,but it may be found throughout the somber depths of the fir and red-
172 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMwood forests, from sea-level nearly to the tops of the northern moun-tains."Courtship.?I do not know whether anyone has ever seen the court-ship display of the eastern winter wren, but I have never seen itreported. Therefore, the following account of the display of thewestern winter wren, by Theed Pearse (1933) is of special interest:The bird was in a bush above a tangle in which, possibly, there was afemale, on a branch just clear of the tangle. First, the bird fluttered orquivered its wings, keeping them close to the body slightly drooped. Itsgeneral attitude was rather squatting, the converse of the ordinary alert up-standing posture. When quivering it looked down towards the ground (thetangle where there may have been a female) and worked its tail alternatelyfrom side to side. At times it would utter a note, a much modified and softenedregular alarm note.The climax came when the bird dropped its wings and fanned with them,bringing them forward and then backwards. The feathers carried coucavelyfrom the front, with the feathers on the back also raised between the wings.The bird "fanned" about ten times; the action was quick but easily followed.After this the bird dropped into the bush and moved away. Shortly after-wards a Winter Wren appeared in the same bush, up from below and perchedthere for a time bowing or bobbing.It was when the bird had the wings held open "fanning" that it broughtinto prominence some white markings on the feathers that were raised onthe rump. The glimpse one had, made it difficult to decide whether the whitewas on the secondary tertial or rump feathers, but there was sufficient todraw attention, though so inconspicuous, that I had to make sure by exam-ining the skins in Mr. Laing's collection. We found that when the featherson the rump were parted there were some that showed white markings or spots.Nesting.?The nests of the western winter wren are apparentlyvery similar, in construction and in the kinds of material used, tothose of the eastern bird, but the locations chosen seem to be some-what more varied. Dawson and Bowles (1909) say:For nesting sites the Wrens avaU themselves of cubbyholes and crannies inupturned roots or fallen logs, and fire-holes in half-burned stumps. A favoritesituation is one of the crevices which occur in a large fir tree when it fallsand splits open. Or the nest is sometimes found under the bark of a decayinglog, or in a crevice of earth in an unused mine-shaft. If the site selectedhas a wide entrance, this is walled up by the nesting material and only asmooth round aperture an inch and a quarter in diameter is left to admitto the nest proper. In default of such shelter, birds have been known toconstruct their nests at the center of some baby fir, or in the drooping branchesof a fir tree at a height of a foot or more from the ground.Mr. Rathbun mentions in his notes a nest that was still fartherfrom the ground: "The nest was attached very near the extremityof one of the lower limbs of a small hemlock tree at a height of12 feet. It was almost round in shape and resembled a bunch ofmoss hanging from the limb, but it was too perfect in shape todeceive me."
WESTERN WINTER WREN 173Thomas D. Burleigh (1930) records four nests, found in north-western Washington, in four different situations; one was "2 feetfrom the ground in the upturned roots of a large fir at the side ofa stream in a wooded ravine." Another was "2 feet from the gi-oundin a crevice at the end of an old rotten log on a hillside in a ravine"
;
a third "was 31/2 feet from the ground in a hole in an old rottenstump in a stretch of thick woods." The fourth nest seems mostunusual "for it was 5 feet from the ground well concealed in amass of dead leaves lodged in a clump of shoots growing from thetrunlv of a large alder in a short stretch of open woods."There is a nest in the Thayer collection in Cambridge that wasapparently similarly located ; it was taken by F. J. Smith, of Eureka,Calif., "in woods near town, fastened to sprouts against the side ofan alder tree, partly concealed by tall sword ferns."The western winter wren is one of the species that accepted J. H.Bowles's invitation to nest in artificially prepared nesting sites; hehad a pair adopt a "very old and badly broken down Creeper 'decoy' "he tried tin cans and other devices unsuccessfully, and then says(1922) : "Finally I removed a section of bark from a small dead firstub, dug out a space about six inches in diameter, then replacedthe bark and made an entrance hole about an inch and a half in diam-eter close to the top of the cavity." A pair of wrens took possession,a few weeks later built a beautiful nest, and laid a set of five eggs init.Like some other wrens, notably the long-billed marsh wren, thewestern winter wren builds extra nests, false or decoy nests, perhapsthrough super-abundant energy on the part of the male, or with theidea of appropriating all available nesting sites for possible futureuse. Mr. Bowles (1899) says: "The number of 'decoys' built byone pair of these birds varies from one to at least four, and on oneoccasion I found eight of these false nests that were strung alongthe edge of a stream bordered by dense growth of all sizes. Thesewere all in a space about 150 yards long and almost in a straightline." He does not claim that all of these nests were made by onepair of birds, but only one appeared during his search. "The 'decoys'are never so well constructed as the regular nests, but a few weeks agoI was surprised to find that a pair had made over and lined one oflast season and laid one egg.^^Eggs.?The eggs are indistinguishable from those of the easternwinter wren. The measurements of 40 eggs average 16.4 by 12.4 milli-meters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 18.1 by 12.7, 17.2by 13.0, and 14.0 by 12.0 millimeters.Young.?Mrs. Wlieelock (1904) says that the young "are fed byregurgitation for several days after hatching, the menu being chiefly
174 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
small grubs which the busy little parents pick out of the bark of theconiferous trees. They are fed on insects and worms also. After thesixth day the food is mostly given in the fresh condition. The wrennestlings leave the nest between the seventeenth and twenty-firstdays."Grinnell and Storer (1924) watched a nest containing young thatwas located on the edge of a small stream, only 13 inches above thewater. They write:The parent was busily engaged in feeding large green worms, millers, crane-flies, and other insects to the young. A beam of light reflected into the nest froma mirror did not seem to frighten the wrens and so it was possible to observeclosely the process of feeding. The old bird made visits at intervals of 4, 9,2, 2, 7, 8, and 3 minutes, respectively ; twice, at the second and last of these timedvisits, the bird carried away excrement. The young void the excrement (whichis enclosed in a gelatinous sac) immediately after being fed; it is dropped bythem on the rim of the nest where it lies as a conspicuous spherical white ob-ject, the size of a large bean. The old bird seizes this in her bill and in oneinstance carried it away fully 50 feet before depositing it in a wild currantbush. One sac fell into the small stream and as it floated slowly along the sur-face the bird snatched nervously at it again and again. Finally it was re-covered, whereupon the bird flew off and disposed of it in the usual manner, in aplace where it would give no clue to the location of the nest.Food.?No comprehensive, detailed study of the food of the westernwinter wren seems to have been made, but it probably does not differmuch from that of other wrens in its habitat. It seems to subsist almostwholly, if not entirely, on insects and their larvae. The items men-tioned in the food of the young, above, probably constitute the bulkof its food.Behavior.?Anyone familiar with our eastern winter wren wouldrecognize this little westerner by its behavior. It is the same, nervous,active little mouse, dodging about near the ground, in and out oftangles and the roots of trees, and about prostrate logs, bowing andbobbing, with its short tail cocked up over its back. Grinnell andStorer (1924) say:The bird seems to sldp along and uses both the short wings and long legs inall its ordinary movements. It seems equally at ease on a nearly vertical twigand on a horizontal root or branchlet.One evening just at sunset, in October, while our party was camped nearSweetwater Creek, a winter wren was watched as it came down to bathe. Thebird fluttered down, half flying, half hopping, to a small pool completely screenedfrom above. It would stay a few seconds, splashing in the water, and thenmove to a perch a few feet above the pool, soon to return for another brief dip.Five or six such short visits were made and then the bird returned to the perchwhere it stayed for a while, fluffing out all its feathers, and using its bill to pressout the water. Two or three minutes sufficed to complete its toilet and then thewren made off down the creek to a brush pile.Voice.?What has been written about the voice of the eastern winterwren would apply equally well to its western relative. The song is
WESTERN WINTER WREN 175hardly inferior to it in any way, and its call notes are similar. Mr.Eathbun tells me that this wren has a long period of song; he hasheard it as early as February 28, but it sings most incessantly fromthe middle of March to the end of June ; he hears it also in July andearly in August, but then the song, "although well rendered, seemsto lack the abandon of that heard during the earlier period" and isnot so frequently given. He once timed the duration of the song andfound that its length varied from 8 to 17 seconds, at times up to 23seconds; the intervals between the songs were 4 to 12 seconds; some-times the songs were repeated without intermissions. He remarksthat some of the notes have "the quality of the tones given by lightlystriking the edge of a thin glass goblet."Taylor and Shaw (1927) say: "If the observer remains quiet, andperhaps makes a squeaking sound with the lips on the back of his hand,he can easily attract the midgets to within 3 or 4 feet. Under suchconditions a call note is uttered, evidently expressive of curiosity orcaution, tssssf tssss/ The usual call note is a check/ chek-chekf chek-chekrWinter.?Cold weather, snow, and ice combine to drive the wrensdown from the higher elevations in the mountains to the lower andmilder valleys, where they seek such shelter as they can find. Evenhere they sometimes perish during severe winters. Theed Pearse tellsme that, on Vancouver Island, they suffered a great reduction innumbers as a result of two successive cold and snowy winters, 1936-37and 1937-38, but had recovered quite well by the winter of 1939-40.C. E. Ehinger (1925) tells an interesting story of a winter wrens'lodginghouse in western Washington. This Avas a small birdbox, 6inches square, attached to their cabin, which was surrounded withwoods. During severe winter weather, in December and January,an increasing number of wrens began using this box as a night roost-ing place. He describes their actions as follows
:
At the setting of the sun the wrens began to gather, and for half an hourthey played about the bird box in the most interesting manner. Singly and ingroups they would dash up to the cabin wall, cling there a moment, then witha flying leap change their position to one a little nearer to the bird box. Thiswas continued until they could spring upon the roof of the box, from whichthey dropped to the little platform and entered. After a moment they wouldusually fly out again and circle around, only to repeat the manoeuvre. Severaltimes, 10 to 15 wrens were counted clinging to the cabin wall at the same time,like so many great flies, when they would repeat the aforesaid manoeuvre andfinally disappear silently through the tiny opening into their lodging house likelittle feathered mice. * * *January 21, time 4 : 45 to 5 : 20 p. m., proved the prize record for wren lodgers.After a short period of the usual "play-antics" the birds entered rapidly until 30were counted. Others continued to come, but the situation inside apparentlyseemed hopeless, and they flew around to the front of the cabin where a ledgeunder the eaves seemed to furnish a protected roosting place. We saw those
176 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMlater through a little ventilating window under the eaves and also heard themmoving about. Just before complete darkness, one belated wren came to thebird box, tried to enter and failed, finding a full house; but not to be denieda warm sleeping place he stood a few moments on the little porch and madea vigorous but unsuccessful attempt to gain entrance. He heard the wrensinside chattering and moving about, perhaps trying to make room for the latecomer. He finally made a third desperate attempt and, climbing over seeminglyinsurmountable obstacles, he gainetP entrance, and in a few moments all wasstill with 31 Winter Wrens snugly ensconced in this 6X6X6 inch apartment.THRYOMANES BEWICKII BEWICKII (Audubon)BEWICK'S WRENPlate 34HABITSBewick's wren, the type race of the species, is the eastern representa-tive of a widely distributed species that has been subdivided into 12additional subspecies in western North America within the limitsof our Check-list. Although it has the widest range and has beenknown for the longest time, it does not seem to have been so thoroughlystudied as some of the western races. Its breeding range, accordingto the 1931 Check-list, is from southeastern Nebraska, northern Illinois,southern Michigan, and central Pennsylvania south to central Ar-kansas, northern Mississippi, central Alabama, central Georgia, andthe highlands of South Carolina.The local distribution of Bewick's wren seems to be dependent on,or limited by, the local distribution of the house wren, for the twodo not seem to get along well together, as several observers have noted.Perhaps the gentle Bewick's wren is no match for the more aggressivehouse wren.Dr. George M. Sutton (1930) says: "The House Wren andCarolina Wren may inhabit precisely the same region without fric-tion ; but the House Wren and Bewick's Wren, or the Bewick's Wrenand Carolina Wren, or all three species, evidently do not." (See alsoBayard H. Christy's 1924 paper.)Whatever the local situations may be, or whichever wren may bethe aggressor, the fact remains that Bewick's wren has been steadilyextending its general range northward into the States named above,as well as in Ohio and Indiana, in regions where it was unknown 50years ago; most of this northward extension seems to have occurredduring the last decade of the last century and the first ten years ofthis. This movement is discussed in more detail by Leon J. Cole ( 1905
)
and more lately by W. E. Clyde Todd (1940), for those who care tostudy its i3rogress.Where Bewick's wren replaces the house wren it becomes the "housewren" of the community, avoiding the swampy woodlands and fre-
BEWICK'S WREN 177quenting open woodlands, upland thickets and hills, fence rows nearhouses, and orchards, where it is often seen perched on telephone wiresor even the roofs of houses and farm buildings, pouring out its de-lightful song. Ridgway (1889) says: "No bird more deserves theprotection of man than Bewick's Wren. He does not need man's en-couragement, for he comes of his own accord and installs himself asa member of the community, wherever it suits his taste. He is foundabout the cow-shed and barn along with the Pewee and Barn Swallow
;
he investigates the pig-sty ; then explores the garden fence, and finallymounts to the roof and pours forth one of the sweetest songs thatever was heard." William Brewster (1886) says that, in western NorthCarolina, it was "confined almost exclusively to the towns, where itwas usually one of the most abundant and conspicuous birds. * * *At Asheville it was breeding in such numbers that nearly every shedor other out-building harbored a pair."Nesting.?Almost any suitable cavity or place of support will suitthis wren for a nesting site. Dr. S. S. Dickey (Todd, 1940) writes:"Odd and wonderful are the sites that Bewick's Wren habituallychooses for its summer home. Away from the haunts of man, it selectslocations suggesting its primitive habits?knotholes in fallen trees inthe woods or open fields, natural cavities and woodpecker-holes intrees, or now and then the center of a dense brush heap. But civiliza-tion has provided this bird with an unusual variety of homes. Anyopening of ready access invites its attention; among those used areholes in fence posts, tin cans, empty barrels, discarded clothing hungin buildings, baskets, bird boxes, deserted automobiles, oil wells, andcrevices in stone, brick, or tile walls."Eidgway (1889) adds the following:Usually it is in a mortise-hole of a beam or joist, or some well-concealedcorner. One was beneath the board covering of an ash-hopper; another, in ajoint of stovepipe which lay horizontally across two joists in the garret of asmoke-house ; a third was behind the weather-boarding of an ice-house, while afourth was in the bottom of the conical portion of a quail-net that had beenhung up against the inner side of a buggy shed. None of these nests would havebeen found had not the bird been seen to enter.The nest is generally very bulky, though its size is regulated by that of thecavity in which it is placed. Its materials consist of sticks, straw, coarsefeathers, fine chips, etc., matted together with spiders' webs, and lined with towand soft feathers of barnyard fowls."Myra Katie Roads writes to me of a nest that was built in a mail boxand disturbed every time the mail was deposited or removed ; it wasdestroyed before the eggs hatched. There is a set of eggs in my collec-tion, taken by Dr. Dickey ; the nest was built on top of and partly insidea last year's nest of the phoebe; this was plastered to the side of ahorizontal beam against the ceiling of the lower story of a sheep shed,8 feet above the ground.
178 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIn addition to the materials named above, nests have been found tocontain green moss, dead leaves, cotton, hair, wool, and occasionally apiece of cast-off snakeskin.On at least two occasions, a cowbird's egg has been found in the nestof this wren, according to Dr. Herbert Friedmann ( 1929)
.
A. Dawes DuBois tells me of a nest he found that "was between twosheets of loosely placed sheet iron in the flat roof of a farmer's shelterfor pigs; he has another in his collection that "was in a sack hung upwith seed corn in an old outhouse ; there was a hole in the side of thesack and through this the wrens entered." And Aretas A. Saunderswrites to me that he saw one building a nest in a wood pile.Eggs.?The commonest numbers of eggs found in the nests ofBewick's wren run from 5 to 7 ; perhaps 7 might be called the average
;
as few as 4 and as many as 11 have been found, and sets of 8 or 9 arenot very rare. The eggs are often very pretty ; the ground color iswhite, and they are more or less irregularly spotted and dotted withreddish brown, umber, various shades of lighter brown, purplishbrown, drab, or lavender. The markings are sometimes concentratedin a ring about the larger end. Some are very finely and faintly sprin-kled with minute dots ; and some are nearly immaculate. The measure-ments of 40 eggs in the United States National Museum average 16.4by 12.7 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 17.8by 12.7, 16.8 by 13.2, 14.6 by 12.8, and 15.3 by 11.7 millimeters.Young.?The period of incubation has been estimated as 10 to 14days, but most observers agree on 14 days as the average. Probablyonly the female incubates, as suggested by one of the western races.The young remain in the nest about 14 days and are fed by bothparents while in the nest and for 2 weeks or more after they leave it.Two broods are generally raised in a season, and sometimes three inthe South. Butler (1898) says that the young return "every nightto roost in the nest after they are able to fly."M. B. Skaggs (1934) timed the feedings of a brood of four youngfor four periods of one hour each on three different days, with thefollowing results
:
First day : Rain almost constantly. Fed 13 times at an average of 4.61 minutes.Second day: a. m., fed 24 times at average intervals of 2.50 minutes; p. m., fed19 times at average intervals of 3.15 minutes. Third day: fed 23 times ataverage intervals of 2.61 minutes. The average interval was 3.04 minutes;the longest interval was 15 minutes ; the shortest interval was '^h. minute.Assuming that the feeding was done only 13 hours per day, 250 trips weremade daily. If young were in nest only 12 days, this would mean about 3,072insects were consumed in addition to what the adults ate. The food for theyoung seemed to consist mostly of green worms with a few moths and cater-pillars. Obviously this destruction of insect life must have been very beneficialto the near-by apple orchard.
BEWICK'S WREN 179Plumages.?I have seen no very young nestlings. Ridgway (1904)describes the plumages as follows: The young in juvenal plumageare "similar to adults, but ground color of middle rectrices brown,like back, etc., feathers of chest (sometimes throat also) more or less<listinctly margined or edged with grayish or dusky, and under tail-coverts more brownish and less distinctly barred." Young birds,showing the postjuvenal molt, are scarce in collections, but apparentlythis molt occurs in August or September, involving the contourplumage, the wing coverts and the tail, but not the rest of the wings.This produces a first winter plumage that is practically indistinguish-able from the winter plumage of the adult. Ridgway (1904) saysthat winter adults, at least in fresh plumage, are "more brightlycolored, the upper parts more chestnut-brown," than in spring birds,
"middle rectrices browner (broccoli brown to light bistre), sides andflanks more strongly tinged with brown, the under tail-coverts withground color brownish white or pale buffy brown." Wear and fadingproduce somewhat duller colors before spring. Adults apparentlyhave a complete postnuptial molt in August and September.Food.?No comprehensive study of the food of the eastern Bewick'swren seems to have been made, but it probably does not differ widelyfrom that of the California races. It is undoubtedly an insectivorousbird, as are all the wrens. It has been credited with eating bollweevils in the South and locusts in Nebraska.Behavior.?Bewick's wren is a gentle, confiding bird, rather courtingthan avoiding human society, being a familiar dooryard bird through-out most of its range. What has been said about its haunts and nest-ing habits illustrates this point. Mr. Brewster (1886) writes of itsactions : "This species resembles other Wrens (especially T. ludovici-anus) in habits and motions, creeping and hopping about under eavesof buildings, and along fences, entering every hole and crevice, andappearing and disappearing like a mouse. Its slender shape and longtail give it, however, a somewhat peculiar appearance?much like thatof the Polioptilae. The tail is habitually carried above the line of theback, although its position and inclination are constantly changing.It is not moved in the usual jerky Wren-fashion, but rather slowly anddeliberately. In a breezy situation it often seems quite beyond thebird's control, waving about with every passing puff of air."Ridgway (1889) says that, as the bird hops about, its long tail is
"carried erect or even leaning forward, and jerked to one side at shortintervals. In its movements it is altogether more deliberate thaneither T. ludovicianus or T. aedon^ but nothing can excel it in quicknesswhen it is pursued."Voice.?Bewick's wren is a fine singer. Mr. Brewster (1886) saysthat "the song is sweet and exquisitely tender?one of the sweetest and
180 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtenderest strains that I know. It recalls that of the song sparrow, butis more prolonged, varied, and expressive." A. W. Butler (1898) re-ports a long period of song, as heard in Indiana, from the last of Marchuntil the end of August ; and once it was heard on October 14. He saysthat the common alarm note is plit; and they have "a finer rattling notethan that uttered by the Carolina Wren. * * * One song I havewritten chip^ chip chip^ te-da-a^ te-dee; another, cheep^ cheep^che-we-e-e-e. A third song sounds something like lohee-to-weet^ a-her^che-chee; while one of its most familiar efforts seems to be expressedby chick ^ click^ for me-e, for you.^^Ridgway (1889) says that the song is "not a voluble gabble, like theHouse Wren's merry roundelay, but a fine, clear, bold song, uttered asthe singer sits with head thrown back and long tail pendent,?a songwhich may be heard a quarter of a mile or more, and in comparisonwith which the faint chant of the Song Sparrow sinks into insignifi-cance."Howell and Oldys (1907) made a careful study of various songs ofthis wren, and state that "in imitative ability the Bewick Wren has,apparently, no rival among our eastern birds other than the Mocking-bird, by which, however, it is greatly excelled. * * * j^ seems to bebetter entitled to the sobriquet of 'Mocking Wren,' than the CarolinaWren, on which the name is sometimes inappropriately bestowed."Francis H. Allen (MS.) writes the song as ^'tBip-ta-tzce-ta-tTill-zip,or pit-zee-ta-triW, both infrequent." And he calls the scolding note abuzzing dss. He says that the ordinary song is like a song sparrow's,but has a minor strain near the beginning suggestive of the fox spar-row, and ends in a trill.Field 7narks.?Bewick's wren is smaller than the Carolina wren andlarger than the house wren. It has a much longer tail than either;the tail is rounded at the tip and appears broader there than at thebase ; the lateral tail feathers are tipped with white spots, which showwhen the tail is spread ; the tail is frequently in motion. There is aconspicuous white line over the eye. The back is grayer, less reddishbrown, than in the Carolina wren, the underparts are lighter colored,and the bird is more slender.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?From the southwestern British Columbia and the Pacificcoast region ; and from central United States to southern Mexico.Breeding range.?The Bewick's wren breeds north to southwesternBritish Columbia (Comox, V. I., Chilliwack, and casually to HoweSound) through Washington and Oregon west of the Cascades, tonortheastern California (Sugar Hill and Cedarville) ; southernNevada (Pahrump Mountains and St. Thomas) ; southern Utah (Iron
BEWICK'S WREN 181City) ; southwestern Wyoming (Green River Valley) ; central Ne-braska (Kearney) ; southern Iowa (Iowa City and Davenport)
;
southern Wisconsin (Prairie du Sac) ; southern Michigan (GrandEapids and Ann Arbor) ; and central Pennsylvania (Beaver and StateCollege). East to central Pennsylvania (State College and BlueRidge Summit) ; the eastern slope of the Alleghenies, south to north-ern Georgia (Brasstown Bald and EUijay). South to northernGeorgia (Brasstown Bald and Ellijay) ; central Alabama (Woodbianaand Prattville) ; northern Mississippi (luka and New Albany) ; cen-tral Arkansas (Conway and Rich Mountain) ; northeastern Oklahoma(Tulsa County) to central Oklahoma and Texas and to southernMexico (Oaxaca). West to Oaxaca (Oaxaca) ; Jalisco (Lake Chapalaand Guadalajara) ; Baja California (San Juanico and Cedros Island) ;north through California, Oregon, and Washington west of the Cas-cades to British Columbia (Victoria and Comox).Winter range.?Bewick's wren winters north to southern Van-couver Island, British Columbia (Courtenay), and south throughWashington and Oregon west of the Cascades to southern California(Death Valley) ; southern Nevada (opposite Fort Mojave) ; centralArizona (Prescott) ; southern New Mexico (Silver City and Deming) ;central Texas (Fredericksburg, Waco, and Dallas) ; central Oklahoma(Oklahoma City) ; central Arkansas (Hot Springs) ; southern Illinois(Olney) ; and southwestern Ohio (Xenia). East to southwesternOhio (Xenia) ; central Kentucky (Lexington) ; central Tennessee(Nashville and Murfreesboro) ; central Georgia (Athens and Macon) ;South Carolina (rarely Chester County and Charleston) ; and north-ern Florida (Daytona). South to northern Florida (Daytona andPensacola) ; the Gulf coast to southern Texas (Brownsville) ; andsouthern Mexico (Oaxaca). West to Oaxaca (Oaxaca) ; Baja Cali-fornia (Cedros Island) ; Guadalupe Island, formerly ; and the Pacificcoast north to Vancouver Island.The range as outlined is for the entire species, which has been dividedinto 16 subspecies or geographic races. The typical race {T. b. he-wicMi) breeds from Nebraska eastward to central Ohio; the Appa-lachian Bewick's wren {T. h. alius) breeds from central Ohio andPennsylvania through the mountains to Alabama; the Texas wren {T.h. cryptus) is found from central Texas to Tamaulipas and NuevoLeon; Baird's wren {T. h. eremophilus) occurs in southeastern Cali-fornia, Arizona, southern Utah, and Colorado to extreme westernTexas to Coahuila, Durango, and central Zacatecas ; the Seattle wren(T. h. coJophonus) is found on the Pacific slope from British Columbiato Oregon; the Nicasio wren {T. h. marinensis) occupies the coastalbelt from southwestern Oregon to Marin County, Calif. ; the WarnerValley wren {2\ h. atrestus) occurs in southern Oregon from the War-758066?48 13
182 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMiier Valley west to Medford and Ashland ; Vigor's wren {T. h. spilurus)is found from San Francisco Bay to northern Monterey County,Calif. ; the San Joaquin wren (2'. b. d/rymoecus) occurs from the lowerSan Joaquin Valley and the western slope of the Sierra Nevada northto northern California; the San Diego wren {T. b. correctus) is foundin the coastal belt from San Benito and Monterey Counties, Calif., tonear the Mexican boundary; the Santa Cruz wren {T. b. nssophilus)occupies Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands, Calif. ; the Catalina wren{T. b. catalinae) occurs on Santa Catalina Island; the San Clementewren {7\ b. leucophrys) occurs on San Clemente Island; the sootywren (7\ b. charientwus) is found in northwestern Baja California,south to latitude 30?; the Cedros Island wren {T. b. cerroensis)occurs on Cedros Island and the adjacent mainland; the Guadalupewren {T. b. brevicauda) , formerly a full species, now considered a sub-species of the Bewick's wren, occurred on Guadalupe Island but isprobably now extinct.Spring migration.?Late dates of spring departure are : Florida
?
Chipley, March 27. Georgia?Beachton, March 26. North CarolinaRaleigh, April 3. Mississippi?Eliisville, March 29. LouisianaBaton Rouge, March 9. Arkansas?Delight, April 2. Texas?Bon-ham, April 4. Oklahoma?Oklahoma City, March 16. ArizonaTucson, May 2.Early dates of spring arrival are : Virginia?Lynchburg, March 14.West Virginia?French Creek, March 19. Pennsylvania?State Col-lege, April 10. Tennessee?Knoxville, February 19. KentuckyBowling Green, March 1. Ohio?Columbus, March 3. IndianaLafayette, March 17. Illinois?Urbana, March 17. Iowa?Blacks-burg, March 19. Kansas?Manhattan, March 10. Nebraska?Hast-ings, April 6. Arizona?Tombstone, February 18. Colorado?FortMorgan, May 4.Fall migration.?Late dates of fall departure are : Colorado?FortMorgan, November 17. Arizona?Tombstone, November 15. IowaNational, October 1. Missouri?Jasper City, November 12. Arkan-sas?Rogers, October 30. Illinois?Rantoul, October 25. IndianaRichmond, October 14. Ohio?Cleveland, October 24. KentuckyVersailles, October 20. Pennsylvania?Beaver, October 2. West Vir-ginia?French Creek, October 12. Virginia?Naruiia, November 18.Early dates of fall arrival are : Oklahoma?Oklahoma City, October15. Texas?Bonham, September 29. Arkansas?Delight, September18. Louisiana?New Orleans, August 28. Mississippi?Bay St. Louis,September 21. North Carolina?Raleigh, September 24. South Caro-lina?Summerton, October 10. Georgia?Macon, September 27. Ala-bama?Greensboro, September 17. Florida?Pensacola, September29.
APPALACHIAN BEWICK'S WREN 183Casual records.?Two nests have been found near Augusta, Ga.
;
at Point Pelee, Ontario, specimens were taken in April of 1909 and1917; one was collected at Appin, Ontario, on December 13, 1898;at Alton, N. H. a bird was shot on April 25, 1900 ; one was recordedat New Hamburg, Pa., on January 1, 1891; it was recorded on De-cember 22, 1890, at Washington, D. C, and there are several records ofoccurrence there from March to November but no record of breeding.Egg dates.?California : 120 records, March 26 to June 18 ; 60 rec-ords, April 17 to May 13, indicating the height of the season.Lower California : 7 records, April 11 to May 21.Missouri : 5 records, March 28 to June 17.Texas: 106 records, March 17 to July 22; 54 records, April 8 toMay 10.Washington : 23 records, March 29 to June 27 ; 12 records, April 25to May 4 .West Virginia : 9 records, April 15 to June 8.THRYOMANES BEWICKII ALTUS AldrichAPPALACHIAN BEWICK'S WRENOne more race, an eastern one, is added to the long list of sub-species of this plastic species, to which Dr. John W. Aldrich (1944)has given the above name. He describes it as "similar to Thryomaneshewickii hewickii, but darker and more sooty (less rufescent). Infresh autumnal plumage : above near mummy brown instead of Prout'sbrown of Ridgway's 'Color Standards'. * * * There seems to beno significant size difference between this race and hewickiV
"The breeding range," says Dr. Aldrich, "extends : north to north-eastern and central western Pennsylvania, and central Ohio, casuallyto central northern Ohio; west to southwestern Ohio, southeasternKentucky, east central Tennessee, and northwestern Alabama ; southto central Alabama, north central Georgia, and central South Caro-lina; and east to central South Carolina, central and northeasternVirginia, southern New Jersey (casually), and northeastern Penn-sylvania," It winters north to near northern limit of breeding range
;
south to northern Florida and the Gulf coast; and west to north-eastern Texas." THRYOMANES BEWICKI CRYPTUS OberhoherTEXAS WRENHABITSThe wrens of this group, ranging from Kansas through Texas toTamaulipas and Nuevo Leon, in Mexico, have been given the abovename. The subspecies is described by Eidgway (1904) as "similar to
184 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMT. h. hewickii but decidedly larger, tail relatively longer (averagingequal to or longer than wing instead of distinctly shorter) , and colora-tion grayer above (broccoli brown to a more decided brown hue), andwhiter beneath, with blackish bars on under tail-coverts muchnarrower."The haunts and habits of the Texas wren are not much different fromthose of its eastern relative. George F. Simmons (1925) includes thefollowing in his list of its habitats around Austin, Tex, : "Usuallybroken country, almost always near civilization; * * * old pas-tures dotted with brush heaps and lined with brush fences ; cut-overwoods ; * * * thickets and beds of cactus in mesquite and cactuscountry; brush heaps and thickets along creeks; dense cedar brakeson the hills ; along rathei' open creek valleys, on slopes and hills, andin semi-open country, but never in dense bottom woods or on extremeopen country; about barns, deserted houses, wood piles and brushheaps. * * * The commonest local wren, a pair in nearly everygarden."We found this wren to be a common resident about the city ofBrownsville, in the rural districts surrounding it, in the open countryabout the ranches, and in the chaparral and pricklypear thickets.Other observers seem to have had the same experience with it there.Edwin V. Miller (1941) says that "at Chipinque, Nuevo Leon, at4,000 feet, the wrens' habitat consisted of large oaks, pines and othertrees, with a thick undergrowth of brush; in the same habitat wereWhip-poor-wills and Couch Jays."Nesting.?The Texas wren builds its nest in just such a variety ofsituations as its eastern relative and in similar places. The only nestwe saw was found beside the road as we were driving out from Browns-ville ; it was built behind a blind on a deserted house, and contained abrood of young on May 24, 1923, George B. Sennett (1879) says that
"a pair of them built their nest between the ridge-pole and thatching ofthe roof of a corn-crib which we occupied in preparing our specimens,and almost over our heads. They were so tame as to hop about amongthe cotton, tow, papers, etc., on our benches, within a few feet of us,and take whatever pleased them," He found another nest "in a brushfence at Lomita Ranch. The nest was quite simple, being but a handfulof hair, leaves, feathers, cotton, and fine bark matted together." Re-ferring to the same general region about Brownsville, Dr. James C.Merrill (1878) says: "Its nests are placed in a variety of situations.I have found them in an old Woodpecker's nest, placed between three orfour joints of the prickly pear, forming a bulky structure, and amongthe twigs of various thorny bushes."Mr. Simmons (1925) says that, in the Austin region, the nest may beplaced anywhere from 3 inches to 25 feet, but usually about 6 feet,above ground. He mentions a number of nesting sites similar to those
TEXAS WREN 185chosen by Bewick's wrens elsewhere and adds a few unusual sites, suchas broken bottles on shelves in sheds, old cow skulls in pastures, oldhats in sheds, and old oriole and mockingbird nests. Others havefound this wren nesting in old nests of the cactus wren and verdin
;
Harry P. Atwater (1887) has seen several such. He relates the follow-ing story : "I once told a little boy to put an old tin can in a brush heapand perhaps a bird would make a nest in it for him. About a weekafter I was surprised when the boy came and told me the bird haddone so and laid an egg in it. * * * On finding the nest the eve-ning before, the boy had taken the can with him to the house with theegg and bird in it, and after showing it to his folks had placed it inanother brush heap close to the house. Six eggs were laid in this nest,and the can containing bird, eggs and nest taken into the house onseveral occasions after dark to show to people. Finally on one occasionthe eggs were broken in handling and the nest deserted."Margaret Morse Nice (1931) watched a pair of Texas wrens build-ing their nest, in Oklahoma ; she gives the following account of theiractivity
:
On April 18, 1926, a pair of Texas "Wrens were building with great enthusi-asm in one of our bird boxes ; in 3% hours tliey made 239 trips?slightly morethan one a minute. Their best record was 20 trips in 6 minutes. Both laboredmost of the time. The male was so busy that he only sang 17 songs during theperiod I watched. Two sample minutes will give an idea of their energy.9 : 49. Both wrens coming to box, one goes in with a big twig, other says, jce, jee,jee, gives its twig to the bird inside, leaves, is back with a rag which it pushespart way in, saying jee, jee, leaves. 1 : 57. Bird goes in with dead leaf, outagain ; other goes in with grass root, out ; tirst enters with dead grass, outother in with twig, out.Mr. Simmons (1925) says that the nest is a "large, compact struc-ture, top level and open above; composed of a mass of rubbish, prin-cipally cedar bark strips, small short sticks and twigs, dead leaves,bits of twine, and chicken feathers, with the occasional use of horse-hair, cowhair, grass, weed stems, rootlets, oak blossoms, cast-off snakeskin, cotton waste, leaf skeletons, spider webs, cobwebs, caterpillarcocoons, paper, and bits of corn husks. Cedar bark and twigs areusually interlocked and moulded into a strong, symmetrical nest withdeep, well constructed cup."Eggs.?The Texas wren sometimes lays as many as nine eggs, butthe usual set consists of six or seven. These are practically indistin-guishable from those of Bewick's wren, showing the usual variations ;some are more heavily marked with larger and more confluent spots,especially about the larger end. The measurements of 40 eggs in theUnited States National Museum average 16.2 by 12.7 millimeters ; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 17.8 by 13.2, 16.4 by 13.2,14.6 by 12.0, and 15.8 by 11.7 millimeters.The food, behavior, and voice of the Texas wren apparently do not
186 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMdiffer materially from those of the species elsewhere. Mr. Simmons(1925) says that it "sings throughout the year, winter as well as sum-mer." The song reminds him of the song of the western lark spar-row, in its buzzing quality. Dr. Friedmann (1929) reports that RoyW. Quillen, of San Antonio, told him that he had found eggs of theeastern cowbird in a number of nests of this wren, and that, nearBrownsville, Dr. A. H. Cordier found a nest "containing three eggsof the Red-Eyed Cowbird and one of the Wren's. The female Wrenwas sitting on the eggs. The next day all three eggs hatched andtwo days later the nest and young were destroyed by a skunk."THRYOMANES BEWICKI EREMOPHILUS OberholserBAIRD'S WRENPlate 35HABITSThis is the desert wren of the Southwestern States and parts ofMexico, ranging from Colorado, southern Utah, southern Nevada,and southeastern California southward, through Arizona, NewMexico, and extreme western Texas, to Coahuila, Durango, and Za-catecas.Ridgway ( 1904) describes this race as "similar to T. h. cryptus^ butdecidedly grayer above (hair brown, approaching broccoli brown insome winter specimens) ; upper tail-coverts and middle rectricesclearer gray; under parts still whiter, the sides more faintly tingedwith brownish gray, the under tail-coverts more purely white andnarrowly barred with black; wing and tail slightly longer, bill de-cidedly longer, midle toe shorter."Referring to Moffat County in northwestern Colorado, Russell W.Hendee (1929) writes: "While frequently reported from the juniperand pinyon region of southern Colorado, the Baird Wren has seldombeen recorded from the northern part of the State. However, we foundthis species among the commonest of the breeding birds of the junipersnear the Sand-wash [a dry valley]. A few were seen among the treeson the ridges near the river, but the birds were much more numerousin the more arid region to the westward."In Arizona we found Baird's wren in the Huachuca and CatalinaMountains, in the lower portions of the canyons up to 6,000 feet,chiefly in the live-oak associations near the mouths of the canyons andon the low foothills. It was common, also, in the mesquite forest, inthe valley of the Santa Cruz River, where there were many largetrees and plenty of underbrush. In New Mexico and Texas its dis-tribution seems to be about the same, mainly between 4,000 and 6,000feet in the mountains, rarely up to 7,000 feet.
BAIRD'S WREN 187Nesting.?We did not succeed in finding a nest of this wren in Ari-zona, but my companion, Frank C. Willard, told me that he once founda nest in the fold of a piece of burlap that was being used as an awn-ing on a house in the Huachuca Mountains. Mr. Swarth (1904b) saysthat the nest is quite difficult to find and that he saw only three orfour in this region, "all built in cavities in the trees, from six to fifteenfeet from the ground."Dr. Coues (1882) found a nest in northern Arizona that was "in thehollow end of a blasted horizontal bough" of a cedar, "about eightfeet from the ground." The nest "rested upon the horizontal floorof the cavity, upon a bed of wood-mould and cedar-berries, about afoot from the ragged entrance of the hollow. It was a neat structure,about 4 inches across outside, by half as much in internal diameter,cupped to a depth of an inch and a half. Outside was a wall of smallcedar twigs interlaced, and next came a layer of finely frayed innerbark strips from the same tree ; but the bulk of the nest consisted ofmatted rabbit-fur stuck full of feathers, among which those of theCarolina Dove were conspicuous."Mr. Hendee (1929) found two nests in northwestern Colorado, ofwhich he says : "A fresh nest, empty, was found on May 19. The first^g^ was laid about a week later and the set of six was completed onMay 31. The nest was composed mostly of wool and feathers and afew small pieces of paper, loosely piled in a natural cavity in a junipertree, about 2 feet from the ground. The opening was very small. Asecond nest was found on June 3. It was placed in a dead juniperbranch about 5 inches in diameter, the opening, caused by the break-ing oif of a small branch, being about an inch in diameter at the widestpoint. The five eggs in this nest were hatching when it was visitedon the following day."Eggs.?The eggs of Baird's wren are typical of the species, withthe usual variations. The measurements of 40 eggs average 16.5 by12.8 millimeters; and eggs showing the four extremes measure 17.8by 13.0, 17.0 by 14.3, and 14.1 by 11.9 millimeters.Plvmages.?Dr. Oberholser (1898) says: "Young birds of eremo-philus range in color above from a light rufescent gray, hardly dis-tinguishable from the shade of young cryptics, to a very dark, dullbrownish gray; averaging, however, very much darker than theTexan form. Many of the specimens are fully as deeply coloredas the young af charienturus, though averaging rather less rufescent."Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) found in their series of 29 adults,collected in Brewster County, Tex., between February 28 and May 26,two "well marked color phases, a gray and a brown one. * * *We cannot distinguish brown-phase Brewster County specimensfrom comparable Arizona and New Mexico specimens."
188 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMEnemies.?Probably these wrens are preyed upon by the usualpredatory birds and mammals, but two reported cases are worthmentioning. Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) state that a "Baird'sWren was found in the stomach of a Roadrunner." And Mrs. Bailey(1928) says that Major Goldman found a dead wren "in the mouthof a rattlesnake that had just killed it."Winter.?^Dr. Grinnell (1914) found the desert Bewick wren tobe common as a Avinter visitant in the lower Colorado Valley, insoutheastern California ; he says that it was "observed chiefly in thesparse brush margining the washes leading down from the desertinterior. The catclaw and larger creosote bushes appeared to affordboth productive foraging grounds and safe retreats. It was rarelythat this wren was seen near the river, and then only as far as thesalt-bush belt. The range of the western house wren in tlie willowassociation appeared to be not at all impinged upon by that of thedesert Bewick wren. This again shows the local dissociation ofbirds of the same or nearly the same habits, even in their winterhabitats. It is to be inferred that there are inherent preferences ofthe two species for cover of the two different sorts."THRYOMANES BEWICKII CALOPHONUS OberholserSEATTLE WRENPlate 36HABITSFor a comparatively short distance along the humid northwestcoast, from southern British Columbia to Oregon, we find this some-what larger and darker subspecies. It does not seem to be muchdarker or browner than its nearest neighbor on the coast, marinensis,but its size is greater.Before Dr. Oberholser (1898) wrote his paper on this group, spiluruswas supposed to range north to, at least, Marin County, the type localityof marinensis. He naturally wrote at that time, regarding caloplionus
:
"It differs from spilurus., its nearest ally, in conspicuously larger bill,besides averaging greater in all its other measurements. The uppersurface seems to be usually rather deeper and richer brown ; the flankssomewhat more rufescent. From hewickii, calophonus is easily dis-tinguished by deeper, more sooty brown above, much darker sidesand flanks, wider superciliary stripe, longer bill, tarsus and middletoe."Wlien I was in Seattle, in 1911, these wrens were common on thepartially wooded campus of the University of Washington, especiallj^in the ravines and on the brushy slopes. We saw them almost dailyin the partially cleared woodlands around Kirkland, and on the
SEATTLE WREN 189wooded islands in the lake. S. F. Rathbun says, in his notes, thatthe Seattle wren is "partial to a somewhat rough country, to opensecond growth, and about the edges of the cleared spaces among thedebris on the ground, particularly if there exists a confusion of fallenlimbs. A section of cleared forest in the transitorj'^ stage toward beingutilized, but as yet in a quite rough condition, will be found a favoritespot for this wren, especially if open enough to admit considerablelight and sunshine."Nesting.?The only nest that I saw was found near Kirkland, Wash.,on May 10, 1911; it was placed in a natural cavity in the upturnedroots of a fallen tree ; as it contained five young birds, almost readyto fly, it was not examined closely. Mr. Rathbun tells me that thisis one of the favorite spots among a variety of sites chosen ; one nestthat he describes in his notes was in such a situation ; it was built intothe cavity left where a stone had been lifted with the roots and thenfallen out ; it was made outwardly of small twigs, pieces of moss, root-lets, sheep wool, fibrous strips of dead stalks of various plants, andsome bits of dead leaves, some of this material being somewhat inter-laced ; it was lined with fine plant fibers and soft feathers, includingsome of the mountain quail, a few pieces of snakeskin, and a few horse-hairs. The nest measured 3 inches high and 5 inches in diameter ex-ternally; the inner cavity was 2 inches in diameter and li^ inchesdeep.J. H. Bowles (Dawson and Bowles, 1909) writes:The building sites chosen by this wren for its nests are so variable that hardlyanything can be considered typical. It may be in the wildest swampy woodfar removed from civilization, but it is quite as likely to be found in a house inthe heart of a city. A few of the nesting sites I have recorded are in upturnedroots of fallen trees, deserted woodpecker holes, in bird boxes in the city, Ina fishing creel hanging on a porch, under a slab of bark that has scaled awaya few inches from the body of a tree, or an open nest on a beam under a bridge.A very complete study of this wren has convinced me that it never buildsany nests except those used in raising the young. In other words, it is the onlywren in the Northwest that is positively guiltless of using "decoys."Eggs.?Mr. Bowles (Dawson and Bowles, 1909), who has had con-siderable experience with the Seattle wren, says : "A set contains fromfour to six eggs, most commonly five. These are pure white in groundcolor, marked with fine dots of reddish brown. The markings arevariable in distribution, some specimens being marked very sparinglyover all, while in others the markings are largely concentrated aroundthe larger end in the form of a more or less confluent ring. The eggsare rather short ovate oval in shape, and average in measurements0.68X0.54 inch."Two broods are reared in a season; or perhaps it would be morecorrect to say that fresh eggs may be found at any time between themiddle of April and the middle of June."
190 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe measurements of 27 eggs average 17.2 by 13.3 millimeters ; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 18.3 by 13.2, 16.3 by 14.0,15.7 by 13.5, and 17.7 by 12.8 millimeters.Beha/vior.?Theed Pearse has sent me the following notes on theterritorial behavior of this wren : "A question of territory arose be-tween a pair of Seattle wrens that were nesting and an incominghouse wren that had nested nearby for some years. The house wrenon arrival investigated the garden and met the Seattle wren, bothbirds alighting on a dividing fence ; the Seattle wren cackled, but noth-ing further happened; the house wrens absolutely recognized thatbeyond this line was the territory of the others ; and, until the Seattlewrens had finished nesting operations, they never passed that line andalways flew on the other side of the house," He noted once that someviolet-green swallows ousted some Seattle wrens from a partiallybuilt nest.Voice.?Mr. Rathbun tells me that this wren begins to sing as soonas winter breaks early in March, continuing well into July, intermit-tently in August, and at odd times in autumn; sometimes it singson the pleasant days in winter, if the weather is mild. Early inspring it begins shortly after daybreak and will sing more or lesscontinuously, sometimes for an hour or so. "At this time the rendi-tions follow each other closely, spaced by a few seconds only. Afterthis morning burst of singing wanes, the wren sings at odd timesthroughout the day. The song so often sung at this period is the onewhich has four notes, given in a chanted manner as it were."W. L, Dawson (Dawson and Bowles, 1909) writes: "To those whoare acquainted only with the typical Bewick Wren of the East, theadded vocal accomplishments of our western representative come inthe nature of a surprise. For the characteristic ditty of hewickiiproper, calojjhonus has introduced so many trills and flourishes thatthe original motif is almost lost to sight. Calophonus means havinga beautiful voice, or sweetly sounding, and right well does the birddeserve the name, in a region which is all too conspicuous for itslack of notable songsters."I cannot quite agree with that last phrase, as there are many finesingers west of the Rockies.Theed Pearse writes to me that he has heard the Seattle wrenmimicking the spring note of the chickadee so correctly that he didnot recognize it as mimicry until the wren broke into its reguhir song.Winter.?Mr. Pearse tells me that, even as far north as VancouverIsland, this wren appears to be "very sedentary" all through theyear; but the cold winters of 1937-38 and 1938-39 practically ex-terminated it, and not until 1941 could it be said to have recoveredaverage numbers.
WAKNER VALLEY WREN 191THRYOMANES BEWICKII ATRESTUS OberholserWARNER VALLEY WRENDr. Oberholser (1932) describes this wren as "similar to Thryo-manes hewickli drymoeciis from the San Joaquin Valley, California,but much less rufescent (more grayish) above; somewhat darker;and averaging larger. * * * Resident in central southern Ore-gon, from the Warner Valley west to Medford and Ashland, andnorth to Gold Hill."
"This new race," says Oberholser, "is most typical in the WarnerValley. Birds from localities west to Gold Hill, Ashland, Keno, andKlamath Falls are somewhat rufescent above, thus inclining a littletoward the race occupying the coast of Oregon. Compared withThryoTJianes hewickii calophonus the present form is so much smallerand more grayish that it needs no special comparison. Altogether aseries of 20 examples has been available."THRYOMANES BEWICKII MARINENSIS GrinnellNICASIO WRENHABITSOn the humid coast belt of southwestern Oregon and northwesternCalifornia, we have a wren that Dr. Grinnell (1910) describes as
"similar to T. h. spilurus (Vigors), of the Santa Cruz faunal areasouth and east of San Francisco Bay, in size, but dorsal colorationbrighter brown, of a Vandyke tone, and flanks and light intervals oncrissum strongly washed with vandyke brown. Similar to T. h. calo-phonus Oberholser, of western Washington and Oregon, but dorsalcoloration brighter brown, of a less sooty tone, and size decidedlyless." He gives the range as Marin and Sonoma Counties, Calif.,and remarks that he had not seen any specimens from the more north-ern coast region of California. The range of this form is now con-sidered to extend into Oregon. Here we have a race, intermediate inrange, like its southern neighbor in size and somewhat like its north-ern neighbor in coloration, yet not strictly intermediate in both char-acters.As it lives in a somewhat similar environment and is evidently veryclosely related to these two adjacent races, we could hardly expect tofind much difference in its habits. Practically nothing has been pub-lished on its habits that is in any way peculiar to it.Robert R. Talmadge writes to me : "This form of the Bewick wrenis a rare breeder in Humboldt County. I have found it breeding onlyon the lower bars of the Eel and the Van Duzen Rivers. In both ofthese localities the bars have a lieavy growth of alder, cottonwood, wil-low, blackberries, and grasses. Among this growth are many drift
192 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMlogs and stumps, brought clown by the high water. It is among thetangled roots and natural cavities of these stumps that this wrennests."The eggs of the Nicasio wren are apparently no different fromthose of the other races of this species. The measurements of 26 eggsaverage 1G.7 by 12.9 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 18.5 by 13.5, 16.1 by 13.9, 14.6 by 12.5, and 1G.3 by 11.9millimeters. THRYOMANES BEWICKII SPILUUUS (Vigors)VIGORS'S WRENHABITSThis was the first of the western races of Bewick's wrens to be de-scribed and named. The other races have all been separated sinceabout 1880; in our first Check-list, published in 1886, this and Baird'swren were the only western races included. The above name thencovered all the wrens of this species inhabiting the Pacific slope ofthe United States, Baird's wren occupying the southwestern desertregions. This old name is now restricted to the wrens of a narrowrange in west-central California, from San Francisco Bay to northernMonterey County.The distinguishing characters are thus described by Dr. Oberholser(1898) : '"''Thryomanes heivickii spilurus may be distinguished fromhewickii by its duller brown upper surface, darker sides and flanks,broader superciliary stripe, shorter wing and tail, rather longer mid-dle toe and tarsus. It may be separated from charienturus by darker,decidedly more rufescent flanks and upper parts and by shorter tail
;
from drymoecus by the much darker color of sides, flanks and uppersurface."Mr. Swarth (1916) says of the characters of spilurus: "Most nearlylike T. h. marinensis^ whose range adjoins that of spilurus at the north,but of lighter brown coloration dorsally, and of slightly greater size.Compared with drymoecus it is brighter reddish above. From chari-enturus it differs in deeper red coloration, and in different propor-tions. In spilurus the tail is slightly shorter than the wing ; in charien-turus the tail is longer than the wing." He admits that it is interme-diate in range and in characters between marinensis and charienfurus,both of which occupy much more extensive ranges.Edwin V. Miller (1941) has published an interesting paper on thehabitats of several western races of this species and a long accountof the behavior of Vigors's wren, from which much of Avhat follows hasbeen taken, though space will not permit as full quotations as the ma-terial warrants. He says in a general way : "There are but few fea-tures of habitat common to all the races of Bewick wrens. Thickplant growth of a kind that will furnish the proper insect food seems
VIGORS' S WREN 193to be the chief requisite. The kinds of plants in one part of the rangeof the species may be totally different from those in another part. Thewrens may be found in trees more than 100 feet high or in brush notmore than 3 feet high. In the Upper Sonoran Life-zone they aremost abundant where the plant growth is thickest. They are par-ticularly noted for their preference for mixed brush."It appears from his accounts, and the statements of others, that thewestern races are less domestic than the eastern race, and are moreabundant in brushy areas away from human habitations. Chaparral-covered hills abound throughout the range of Vigors's wren, and it isthere that the wrens are found in greatest numbers, where they findan abundant food supply and suitable nesting sites. But they arealso found to some extent in other situations. '"On the north-facingslope" of Strawberry Canyon in Berkeley, "the wrens are common,being found in chaparral, mixed brush and oak, and in pure standsof Monterey cypress and Douglas fir, without underbrush. In thechaparral association, baccharis is the dominant plant, forming densestands of 4 to G feet in height. In the mixed brush and oak regionthe height of the plant cover is anywhere from 1 to 30 or 40 feet."Mr. Miller (1941) determined to his own satisfaction that the malesestablish and maintain definite territories during the breeding season,and perhaps to a less extent at other seasons ; he says
:
Bewick Wrens are found throughout the year either singly or in pairs. Mostcommonly the males appear on territories in the early spring and are matedshortly afterward. Males of T. &. spilurus show territorial reactions towardother males at any time of the year, although much more frequently in the spring.Females show no sucli reactions toward males, at least, and probably have no partin the defense of territory. Males and mated pairs have territories in the springand may possibly have them in the winter. The territories of several wrens weremapped ; they proved to be about 50 yards wide by 100 yards long. * * * Thelimits of these territories did not vary more than a few feet from day to day. Themales of these areas exhibited strong reactions toward other males adjacent tothem. When two males happened to meet on a boundary, they would stop forag-ing, sing, and give harsh vocal utterances, and follow each other along the edge oftheir territories. Males would often stop foraging and hurry to their boundarieswhen they heard another male nearby.Nesting.?The same observer states that "Bewick Wrens' nests areplaced in secluded cavities in or near the ground. Each nest has a welldefined cup of soft materials and usually has a base of small twigs.Most nests are open above ; rarely they are arched over the top. Themale may develop slight nest-building instincts before he is mated, butin most instances nests are not built until the female is present. Bothmates may build the nest, although the male works sporadically, andthe female often builds alone. Usually only one nest is built, althoughsome authors state that several are sometimes begun. * * * Thenest may be built in 10 days and the eggs may be laid in 6 days."
194 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMrs. Amelia S. Allen writes to me : "The Vigors wren is perhaps,next to the California quail and the spotted towhee, the most abundantresident species in Strawberry Canyon in Berkeley. It comes backagain and again to the same nest hole, which it often visits as early asthe first week in February. On March 15, 1928, 1 found one taking thefur from a rabbit skin that had been thrown into a tree and carrying itinto a hole at the very bottom of a live oak. In 1919 a pair brought upa brood in a big flicker box that stood on a wall near our front doorwaiting to be placed in its permanent position. In 1936 a pair nestedin the same box in a position near a second-story window."Dawson (1923) says of the nesting site: "A cranny of suitable sizeis the sine qua non, and this may be in a rock-pile, in a canyon wall, inan old woodpecker hole, in the mouth of an old tunnel of a Rough-winged Swallow, under a root, behind a sprung bark-scale, in an oldshoe or a tin can, or the pocket of a disused coat." Nests have beenfound also in empty boxes or small baskets left lying around, in woodpiles, behind the lattice on a porch, under a tile on the roof of a house,in trash piles, in cavities on cliffs, and behind bunches of sprouts orleaves on the trunk of a tree.Dawson (1923) says the nests are made "basally of sticks, twigs,weedstems, grasses, bark, or moss; lining of fine grasses, hair, fur, orfeathers." Various other materials enter into the composition of thenests, such as fine rootlets, dry leaves, wool, cotton, spider nests, horse-hair, and sometimes bits of snakeskin ; probably any soft pliable mate-rial will do.Eggs.?Mr. Miller (1941) says: "Three females were observed tolay their eggs early in the morning; each female laid at about thesame time each day. Two sets of eggs usually are laid, with fromthree to eight eggs per set; six is the most common number." Theeggs are practically indistinguishable from those of the other racesof the species, being white, with scattered fine dots of reddish brownor cinnamon, and sometimes a few shell markings of pale drab ; someare nearly immaculate. The measurements of 40 eggs average 16.6 by12.8 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 18.0 by12.5, 17.0 by 14.0, 15.2 by 12.7, and 15.2 by 12.2 millimeters.Young.?Observations made by Mr. Miller (1941) "seem to warrantthe conclusion that the female does all the incubation, at least in theearly stages. She leaves the nest for short periods to forage and tobe fed by the male. The male may also feed her at the nest. * * *The periods of incubation and nestling life are about 14 days each.The parents probably care for the young for about 2 weeks after thelatter leave the nest. * * * The total nesting cycle is about 58days in length."Food.?Professor Beal (1907) examined the stomachs of 146 speci-
VIGORS' S WREN 195mens of the California races of Bewick's wrens, taken in every monthof the year. A little more than 97 percent of the food consisted ofinsects and less than 3 percent of vegetable matter. Six stomachscontained seeds, and one held what was supposed to be fruit pulp. Ofthe animal food, various bugs (Hemiptera) were the largest item, 31percent; these included the black olive scale, a very injurious species,leaf bugs, stink bugs, shield bugs, leafhoppers, treehoppers, and jump-ing plant lice. Beetles (Coleoptera) amounted to over 21 percent ofthe food; ladybirds were the only useful beetles eaten, but theyamounted to only 3 percent, against 10 percent of harmful weevils ; thestomachs of two wrens contained 85 and 80 percent of engraver beetles,which live under the bark of trees and do much damage to the timber
;
other beetles, mostly leaf beetles, were eaten to the extent of 8 percent.Ants formed about 7 percent and wasps 10 percent of the food. Cater-pillars and a few moths and some cocoons constituted a little less than12 percent and grasshoppers 4 percent of the wren's diet. Very fewflies were eaten, and spiders made up more than 5 percent of thetotal food.Eegarding the feeding habits of Vigors's wrens, Mr. Miller (1941)writes: "Foraging takes place on the ground and on the limbs andfoliage of bushes and trees. In foraging, the birds use their bill forpicking insects off leaves and branches, for flicking over leaves onthe ground and, less commonly, for digging insects from cracks inbark. They do not scratch for food. They forage rapidly, and thisactivity takes up the larger part of their time. The method of forag-ing varies in accordance with the size and distribution of the plantsin their habitat. In early spring the male of a mated pair forageshigh up in brush and trees, and his mate forages low down in brushand weeds."Behavior.?^Mr. Miller says: "The relations of Bewick Wrens toother vertebrate animals of their habitat are mostly neutral. Theyprobably are preyed upon to a slight extent by bird-hawks and owls.Where the wrens nest about buildings in suburban areas, they some-times have conflicts over nesting sites with House Wrens, titmice, andother small birds. Under these circumstances the Bewick Wrensusually retreat. Some individuals have been found roosting in cav-ities. Bathing in both dust and water occurs."Laidlaw Williams (1941) has published an interesting paper on theroosting habits of chestnut-backed chickadees and Bewick's wrens. Thewrens used two types of roosts, on the sides of buildings and beneatha canopy of fallen dead needles on a Monterey pine bough. On theside of one building the wren roosted in a vertical crack between tworustic slabs of bark, resting on a horizontal slab over a window ; on fourrainy nights a wren roosted on a wire under the eaves of a house and
196 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMleaned against the wall. In all cases the feathers of the rump weregreatly ruffed out, showing the subterminal white spots.Voice.?The various call notes of Vigors's wren are apparently aboutthe same as those of the eastern Bewick's wren ; the song is similar,certainly not inferior, and is said to show more versatility. Mr. Mil-ler (1941) says that "the songs of the wrens in Arizona, Texas, andnortheastern Mexico differ noticeably from those of wrens along thecoast of California. The songs of spllvrus and inarinensis are con-siderably more complex and varied" than those of the others. Hesays further
:
Ouly the males sing. Males, at least of the race spilnrns, do not sing through-out the year ; they cease for a month or two in late autuum. * * * Wrens inStrawberry Canyon generally perch on the outer small twigs near the top of atree or bush. * * * I once saw a wren singing from four different perches intwo minutes. Most of the wrens I have observed sing in about the followingposition : feet spread wide apart, tail horizontal, bill tilted slightly upward, wingtips a little beyond the body and a little below the level of the base of the tail.* * * Most authors speak of the tail hanging down in the manner of athrasher, but I have not seen them sing in this posture more than with the tailhorizontal, and I have even seen the tail erect during singing.Mrs. Amelia S. Allen says in her notes : "During the last week ofJuly and throughout August, when most birds are silent, the Vigorswrens sing a very subdued song. After watching them for manyyears, I have come to the conclusion that the birds of the year beginto sing at that time. By the middle of September the full song isheard."Winter.?At this season, Vigors's wrens, and probably others of theCalifornia races, are more widely distributed. Ralph Hoffmann (1927)says that "in the fall many Bewick Wrens move down from thechaparral slopes and inhabit shrubbery near habitations, though somestay in the canyons all winter. * * * The Bewick Wren in winterfrequents the same places in the lowland which the House Wrenoccupies in summer; occasionally both are present at the same time."These fall and winter wanderings, not strictly migrations, carry thewrens quite down to the coast in suitable places, such as the Point LobosReserve on the coast of Monterey County, where the bird is almostunknown in summer. Here, according to Grinnell and Linsdale(1936), they were seen in "considerable numbers" all through winter,becoming common in September. They w^ere seen foraging in thelower branches of cypresses and pines, in the brush and grass, andon the ground among lupine and sage bushes. Other types of winterhabitat were a "blackberry tangle along a fence; dead and livingceanothus on south-facing, chaparral-covered slope; thicket of liveoak in low mat around base of pine; brush of buckwheat, monkeyflower, sage, baccharis, and poison oak ; and low horehound mats."
SAN JOAQUIN WREN 197THRYOMANES BEWICKII DRYMOECUS ObcrholserSAN JOAQUIN WRENHABITSThis subspecies occupies an extensive range in inland California,which Swarth (1916) outlines as follows: "The central portion ofCalifornia; the Sacramento Valley, and northward at least to theOregon boundary ; northeast to the Warner Mountains, on the Nevadaboundary; the west slope of the central Sierra Nevada, everywherebelow Transition ; southward over about the northern half of the SanJoaquin Valley."He gives as its distinguishing characters
:
Compared with cJiarienturus [now called corrcctus], drymoectis has the uppersurface darker and more rufcscent. The tail is somewhat shorter, and in differ-ent proportion to the wing. In charienturus the tail is slightly longer than thewing, in drymoecus slightly shorter. Compared with spilurus, the upper surfaceof drymoecus is a duller and less rich brown. In the juvenal plumage thecharacter of intensity of rufescence of the upper surface is also apparent, youngof drymoecus being less deeply colored than young of spilurus and marinensison the one hand, and somewhat darker (though slightly so) than the young ofcJiarienturus on the other. It is noteworthy in this regard that whereas intypical drymoecus (Sacramento Valley birds) the adults approach spilurus morenearly than they do charienturus, the juvenal plumage is but slightly differentfrom the same stage in charienturus.Being centrally placed, this race naturally intergrades with each ofthe surrounding subspecies at their points of contact, making it difficultto draw hard and fast lines as to the limits of its distribution.Not much can be said about the haunts and habits of the San Joaquinwren beyond what has been written about the adjacent races, as theCalifornia races are all much alike in these matters. Keferring to theYosemite region, Grinnell and Storer (1924) say that this wren "iscommon in the Upper Sonoran foothills, and some are to be found stillfarther to the west, in the San Joaquin Valley, in the bottom lands ofthe Merced and Tuolumne rivers. There are four species of wrens inthe foothill country, yet no two meet each other in serious competition.The Caiion Wren is found on rocky caiion walls, the Rock Wren aboutearth bluffs and rocky outcrops, the House Wren in oak trees, whereasthe San Joaquin Wren inhabits the mixed gi'owths comprising smalltrees and brush."John G. Tyler (1913) writes: "The nature of the country aboutFresno is not such as to attract wrens of any kind in numbers. Woodsprites they are, and must have a well timbered country ; so it is notsurprising that the present species occurs, within the range of thispaper, principally along the San Joaquin and Kings rivers and at themouth of one or two of the creeks that lead down out of the hills.From these places they make somewhat extended visits to other parts7580GC?4S 14
198 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of the valley during the winter months, and are sometimes encounteredin brush piles along the canals and ditches. Here they climb over logs,dodge into brush heaps, or pry into the holes in partly dead willows,picking up from such places whatever offers in the way of food."Four eggs of this wren in the United States National Museummeasure 17.8 by 13.2, 16.5 by 12.7, 16.5 by 12.8, and 16.6 by 12.5 milli-meters. THRYOMANES BEWICKII CORRECTUS GrinnellSAN DIEGO WRENHABITSThe above name is the result of an unfortunate shift of names, whichDr. Grinnell (1928) found necessary. This is the race of the SanDiegan region that Dr. Oberholser (1898) and Mr. Swarth (1916)called charienturus. Dr. Grinnell discovered that wrens from the typelocality of charientuims^ in northern Baja California, were "almost in-distinguishable from the San Pedro Martir race." This made it neces-sary to transfer the name charienturus to the wrens of the San PedroMartir region and adjacent portions of northwestern Baja Californiaand to invent a new name for the wrens of the San Diegan district;he promptly "corrected" the error by naming it correctus! He givesthe characters of correctus^ "as compared with T. h. drymoecus^ dorsaltone of coloration decidedly lighter, 'warmer' brown, light bars ontail paler, and tail longer."The 1931 Check-list gives the range of the San Diego wren as, "coastalbelt of California from the west side of the San Joaquin Valley, in SanBenito and Monterey counties, southeast through the San Diegan dis-trict to near the Mexican boundary."In a general way, the haunts and habits of the San Diego wren aresimilar to those of the surrounding subspecies, but Harry H. Dunn(1902) gives a somewhat different impression of conditions in OrangeCounty; he says: "Wlierever there are rocky canyons, particularlythose which contain scattering pools of water, there will be found oneor more pairs. * * * It is never found far from rocks, and, in sofar as I am able to learn, never nests anywhere except in crevices ofrocky ledges, interstices between boulders, or in small caves. * * *In many cases, especially where wood rats are abundant, the Wrens willselect a crevice between two rocks, into which even a rat cannot go.* * * Where holes in the solid rock, as in the faces of numeroussouthern California cliffs, are available, however, the little pair willselect a good sized cave and in its sandy floor scratch out a hole largeenough to hold a loosely woven nest." Such nesting sites seem morecharacteristic of rock wrens or canyon wrens, but it seems hardly likelythat he could have been mistaken.Eggs.?The eggs of the San Diego wren are apparently indistin-
SANTA CRUZ WREN 199guishable from those of other races of the species. The measurementsof 40 eggs average 16.7 by 12.8 millimeters ; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 18.9 by 14.3, 14.6 by 12.8, and 15.8 by 11.7 millimeters.THRYOMANES BEWICKIl NESOPHILUS OberholserSANTA CRUZ WRENHABITSIn naming this as a new subspecies from Santa Cruz and Santa RosaIslands, Dr. Oberholser (1898) says: "This new subspecies may bedistinguished from charienturus [now called correctus] by the darker,more rufescent coloration of the upper surface, sides and flanks ; thetail also averages appreciably shorter. It is noticeably lighter andrather more gi-ayish than spilurus, besides having a somewhat longerculmen. From drymoecus it is without difficulty separable by thenoticeably darker and rather more sooty color of the flanks and uppersurface. The tail also averages slightly shorter. * * * The youngin first plumage are apparently not to be discriminated from those ofcharienturus^ though they perhaps average more rufescent. They areusually darker than the young of drymoecus.''''In a later review of this group, Mr. Swarth (1916) says:The Santa Cruz Wren is apparently one of the most illy defined of any of thedescribed forms of Thryomanes bewicki. The available series affords satis-factory material for comparison. * * * Judging from these specimens thisisland form has become but slightly differentiated from the mainland race.* * * It is perhaps noteworthy that the slight differences serving to distin-guish nesophilus from charienturus [now called correctus] are steps in the direc-tion of spilurus, the slightly more reddish dorsal coloration, darker flanks, andshorter tail, being just the characteristics encountered in birds occupying theintermediate coastal region between the ranges of charienturus and spilurus. Themainland nearest to Santa Cruz Island forms part of this intermediate region.The only information I have on the nesting of this subspecies isfrom the data on a set of six eggs in the Doe collection in Gainesville,Fla. This was taken by M. C. Badger on Santa Cruz Island, March31, 1935. It was from a nest of small twigs, grass, and plant down,well concealed and sunken into the ground beneath a fallen willowtree.The eggs in this set measure 17.5 by 13.0, 17.5 by 12.7, 17.3 by 13.0,17.3 by 12.7, 16.8 by 13.0, and 16.8 by 12.7 millimeters.THRYOMANES BEWICKIl CATALINAE GrinnellCATALINA WRENHABITSThe Bewick's wrens of Santa Catalina Island, off the coast of south-ern California, were named by Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1910) and de-sctibed as "closely similar in color and general size to T. b. charien-
200 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtw^s Oberholser [now called con^ectus'], of the adjacent mainland,but averaging darker dorsally (more sepia and not so umber brown),and with heavier bill and conspicuously and constantly larger feet(longer toes and heavier tarsus) ; differs from T. h. leucophrys (An-thony), of San Clemente Island, in decidedly darker, less ashy colora-tion, and in much more heavily barred under tail-coverts; differsfrom 2\ h. nesophilus Oberholser, of Santa Cruz Island, in duller, lessrufescent, coloration, grayer flanks, longer bill and generally largersize."He says that it is common on Santa Catalina Island and permanentlyresident. It does not seem to differ in any of its habits from the main-land forms of the species.There is a set of six eggs of this race in the collection of Charles E.Doe, of Gainesville, Fla. It was taken by J. S. Kowley on Santa Cata-lina Island, May 8, 1920. The nest was in a crevice of the "bark ofa scrubby-like bush in the bottom of a gulch."The eggs in this set and five more in the Philipp collection, 11 in all,average in measurements 17.6 by 13.2 ; the eggs showing the four ex-tremes measure 18.3 by 13.5, 17.6 by 13.6, 16.8 by 13.0, and 17.8 by 12.7millimeters. THRYOMANES BEWICKII LEUCOPHRYS (Anthony)SAN CLEMENTE WRENHABITSA. W. Anthony (1895a), with Dr. Edgar A. Mearns, collected aseries of Bewick's wrens on San Clemente Island, off the extremesouthern coast of California, from which this wren was describedand named as a new species. Mr. Anthony describes it as "differingfrom T. spilurus in decided gray wash on the upper parts, in theless heavily barred under tail-coverts, and in having a somewhatlonger bill." He says further
:
Although the present species is obvioiisly closely related to the mainlandbird, * * * I gee no reason at present for regarding it as a subspecies ofthat form. San Clemente Island lies 75 miles from the mainland, and it isquite evident that the species does not intergrade through the other islands ofthe Santa Barbara group, as the Thryothorus from those islands proves to beno nearer related than does the mainland form.The differences are at once noticeable even at a glance ; the longer bill, themore purely white and much more conspicuous superciliary stripe, togetherwith the more gray upper parts arc quite striking to one acquainted with themainland bird. The species is quite common in the thick cactus and low brushon the south end of the island, but owing to its habits is quite difficult tosecure.A. Brazier Howell (1917) writes:These wrens are evenly distributed over San Clemente, frequenting the densestthorn bushes and cactus patches, from the tops of which their loud clear song,differing but little from that of the mainland bird, is given. Before one is within
SOOTY WREN 201good range of them they will casually hop down into the lower cactus, and itis very hard indeed to make them show themselves again. If it is in a lowbush that they disappear, no amount of trampling will bring a bird forth, butas soon as one steps off the bush, out he pops and away to another one. I shota juvcnal with fully grown tail, April 2, 1915, and from then on the youngsterswere not rare. The eggs have evidently never been discovered, but I believethat the nest is invariably built in the center of a dense patch of cactus. "WhileI was trying to remove a dead bird from such a place, on March 29, and smashingthe cactus as I went, I uncovered an unfinished nest, probably pertaining tothis species. It was wedged under and between cactus leaves some 8 inchesabove the ground, a 3-inch ball formed of soft fiber, and with the entrance onone side. Two days later when I returned, some little lining had been added,but the situation had beeu so disturbed that it was deserted before eggs werelaid. THRYOMANES BEWICKII CHARIENTURUS OberhoherSOOTY WRENHABITSThis is the wren that Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1927b) described as therace inhabiting "the San Quintin subfaunal district of northwesternLower California." It ranges south to about latitude 30?. Dr. Grin-nell named it Thryomanes hewickii carbonarius, sooty Bewick wren,and described it as "similar to Thryomanes hewickii charientuinisOberholser (from western San Diego County, Calif.) , but bill slightlysmaller, and coloration grayer, more slaty (rather than brown), inmany respects, as follows : bill, tarsus, toes and claws blackish, withno tinge of light brown ; sides of neck, sides of body, and flanks clearergray ; top of head and whole dorsum darker, less warmly, brown ; darkportions of webs of all flight feathers darker, more slaty."But this first name for the race did not stand long, for Dr. Grinnell(1928) discovered that a shift of names was necessary. He found thatthe type of charienturus came from "Nachoguero Valley, in extremenorthern Lower California a few miles southwest from Jacumba, SanDiego County, Upper California. Fresh fall examples now at handfrom exactly that locality show themselves to be, not as I had hereto-fore assumed they would be, of the San Diegan district race, but almostindistinguishable from the San Pedro Martir race. Hence it becomesnecessary to use the name charienturus for the 'Sooty Bewick Wren'of the San Pedro Martirs and to invent a new name for the race ofthe San Diegan district."This shift may be a bit confusing and therefore unfortunate, but itwas perfectly logical and proper. I cannot find that anything distinc-tive has been published on the habits of this subspecies.There is a set of six eggs of this wren in the Doe collection, takenby N. K. Carpenter, in the Nachoguero Valley, on April 27, 1937. Thenest was in a bird box, 10 feet up in a live-oak tree, made of grass andtwigs, and lined with snakeskin and feathers.
202 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe measurements of 18 eggs in the Doe, Hanna, and Philipp col-lections average 17.3 by 12.7 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 18.7 by 13.1, 16.4 by 12.6, and 16.5 by 12.2 millimeters.THRYOMANES BEWICKII CERROENSIS (Anthony)CEDROS ISLAND WRENHABITSThe Cedros Island wren has a rather restricted range on the island bythat name and on the neighboring mainland of Baja California, in themiddle of the peninsula, between latitudes 25? and 30?.A. W. Anthony (1897) , who named and described it as a new species,writes
:
The present species needs comparison with none of our western species of thegenus unless it be T. leucophrys, from which it is very easily separated by its muchshorter bill, as well as other discrepancies in size, as will be seen from the accom-panying table of measurements. From specimens before me taken at Rosalia Bay,55 miles east of Cerros Island, the new species is easily separated by much moreextensively gray lower parts, less heavily barred. The lower tail-coverts, and itstail feathers have a terminal band of gray of not less than 4 millimeters, whereasthe main land bird has a semiobsolete bar of about 1 millimeter. The middlerectrices are also less plainly barred in the mainland specimen, the bars becomingsomewhat obsolete near the shaft.Cerros Island Wrens were not common at any point on the island, though morewere seen about the pine timber on the higher ridges.Dr. Oberholser (1898) remarks: "The wide terminal band of grayon the tail-feathers and lower tail-coverts, which Mr. Anthony regardsas a character separating the Cerros Island bird from charienturus, isa purely individual variation, and consequently of no diagnostic value.The same may be said of the indistinctness of the barring on the centralrectrices, which is observable to a greater or less extent in all the formsof the genus." He says further, however: "The characters whichseparate this form from leucophrys are the darker upper parts, rathermore deeply gray flanks, much shorter bill, appreciably shorter wingand tarsus."Comparing it with its nearest neighbor on the mainland, Ridgway(1904) says: "Similar to T. h. charienturus, but slightly smaller (thebill decidedly so) and coloration slightly paler and grayer."I can find nothing to add about the habits of this subspecies.Four eggs in the P. B. Philipp collection measure 17.7 by 12.6, 17.1by 12.7, 16.8 by 12.6, and 17.7 by 12.5 millimeters.THRYOMANES BEWICKII BREVICAUDA RidgrwayGUADALUPE WRENHABITSThis well-marked form lived and died on Guadalupe Island, off thecoast of Baja California, where it is now evidently extinct. As this
GUADALUPE WREN 203account is in the nature of an obituary notice, it seems worth while toquote rather freely from a historical sketch of the island and the bird,as published by A. W. Anthony (1901) ; he writes
:
What may have been the zoological condition of Guadalupe Island at the timeof its discovery will probably never be known, but that it was to the botanist andzoologist a spot of surpassing interest and strikingly different from the islandof today cannot be disputed. It was in 1875, when visited for the first time by anaturalist, found to be wonderfully rich in both plant and animal life. Not onlywere the species largely peculiar to the island and quite different from their main-land representatives but botanical genera were found that have since becomeextinct. * * *I have at the present writing no means of ascertaining when tlie domestic goatwas introduced on the island but as it was placed on many of the coast islandsby the early whalers it is not unlikely that this pest held sway on Guadalupe ahalf century or more before the richness of the flora and fauna was made knownto the world by Dr. Edward Palmer in 1875. It is directly due to the despisedBilly-goat that many interesting species of plants formerly abundant are nowextinct, and also that one or more of the birds peculiar to the island has disap-peared, and others are rapidly following.Dr. Palmer collected only two specimens of this wren on Guadalupe,on which Mr. Ridgway (1876) named and described the species indetail, saying among other things that "this insular form is muchgrayer than the T. hewicki spilurus of California and Western Mexico."Later on (1904) he describes it as "practically identical in colorationwith T. heioickii charlenturis [now called correctus^ except tail (themiddle rectrices of which are more narrowly and nmch less distinctlybarred), but much smaller, tail relatively shorter, and bill muchlonger."Walter E. Bryant (1887) made two visits to Guadalupe in 1885, inJanuai"y and December, remaining 3 months on the latter visit. Hegives full description of the island which is situated 220 miles south-westward from San Diego and lies between latitudes 28?45' and29? 10' N. ; it is about 15 miles long and 5 miles wide at its widest partand is said to reach an altitude of 4,523 feet at the highest point. Hecollected seven specimens of this wren on February 16, 1886, four malesand three females, and says : "This rare local species has become muchrestricted in distribution and perhaps in numbers since Dr. Palmer ob-tained the only two known specimens in 1875. I am informed that nocollecting was done at that time among the pines on the northern por-tion of the island, in which place alone was I able to discover any traceof this species ; and as no collecting was done by Dr. Palmer among thepalms (an unlikely place for the birds to be found), I infer that thetwo original specimens must have been found toward the centralportion of the island."According to Mr. Anthony (1901) , the restricted area in which Mr.Bryant collected his specimens consisted of a growth of stragglingpines along the sharp ridge of North Head, affording a habitat of about60 by 300 feet. He says:
204 BULLETIN 10 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFearing the extermination of the species the balance of the colony was unmo-lested, but as the sheltering undergrowth was more and more constricted by thegoats the birds were either blown from the island by violent gales that frequentlysweep over it, or killed by cats which infest the entire island since their introduc-tion about the time of Dr. Palmer's visit in 1875. The last week in May, 1892,Mr. Clark P. Streator, and myself paid a visit one day to the North Head.Near the beach and directly below the pines Mr. Streator took a pair of wrenswhich are now in the collection of the Biological Survey. On the ridge nearthe spot where Bryant found them, I discovered a bird which was secured, andsaw what may have been a second but was of doubtful identity. Since thatdate I have made several calls at Guadalupe, and though the entire top ofthe island was carefully searched by myself and several assistants for days ata time we never found any signs of the species which must now be classedamong those that were.The constant destruction of all low-growing vegetation by the goats still con-tinues, not only consuming the nesting sites and shelters of Junco, Pipilo andall ground-nesting species but giving to the ever watchful cat more favorableopportunities for destroying the few birds that are left. Pipilo consobrinusis now nearly or quite extinct and the juncos are surely but steadily becomingscarce. Since the goats kill all of the young trees as soon as they appear aboveground, and the larger trees are dying, the outlook for the future flora and faunais not bright.So, the Guadalupe wren probably disappeared entirely soon after1892, and another was added to our growing list of extinct species.This sad story should serve as a lesson to conservationists, a warningagainst over-grazing and the release of introduced animals and offeral cats, the latter becoming a serious menace anywhere.Nesting.?It seems that the nest of this wren has never been found ;this and the eggs will remain forever unknown. Mr. Bryant and hisMexican companion made a careful and protracted search for nestsduring the greater part of two days, but with no success.Plmnages.?The single young bird, now in the collection of theU. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, is practically indistinguishable fromthe young of the San Diego wren, according to Oberholser (1808).Food.?The stomach of one of the birds collected by Dr. Palmer
"contained remnants of some small black insects which feed upon theblossoms of the White Sage" (Ridgway, 1876). And Mr. Bryant(1887) found "insects and two pine seeds" in the stomach of one ofhis birds.Behavior-?Mr. Bryant (1887) says: "The birds were timid ratherthan shy, being alarmed by the crushing of dry branches as I workedmy way amidst the dense windfalls of pines, where they w^cre found,they fled into the thickest parts. When all was quiet they wouldcautiously approach until within a few feet of me, seemingly promptedby curiosity. * * * ^ frightened female uttered a few 'twit'
'twits' of alarm, but with this exception they were utterly silent."
CAROLINA WREN 205THRYOTHORUS LUDOVICIANUS LUDOVICIANUS (Latham)CAROLINA WRENPlates 37, 38HABITSIn attempting to compile the life histories of the wrens of this species,I have not overlooked and shall not attempt to criticize a recent import-ant paper on the geographical variation in the Carolina wren by GeorgeH. Lowery, Jr. (1940), in which he splits the species into eight sub-species, one of which is Mexican. This makes a rather large additionto the three races now recognized in our 1931 Check-list. Doubtlesssome of his races, perhaps all of them, are worthy of recognition innomenclature. But, as the author does not claim to be a systematicornithologist, it seems best for a work of this kind to follow the nomen-clature and classification of the latest Check-list, as has been done inprevious volumes.I have always associated the Carolina wren with the sunny South, oneof that happy trio of birds that are always ready to greet the northernbird lover with their loud cheery songs as he travels southward ; thesongs of this wren, the tufted titmouse, and the cardinal have enoughin common to confuse a newcomer when he hears them for the first time,but they are really different when carefully studied ; however, they areall delightful and give us a warm touch of southern hospitality, ahearty welcome to Dixie Land.But we cannot now regard the Carolina wren as exclusively a south-ern bird, for it seems to have been extending its range northward duringthe early part of the present century. The 1931 Check-list gave as theprobable northern limits of its range "southeastern Nebraska, southernIowa, Ohio, southern Pennsylvania, and lower Hudson and Connec-ticut valleys" and called it "casual or accidental in Wisconsin, Michi-gan, Ontario, Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts." Dr.Charles W. Townsend (1909) has published an interesting paper onwhat he calls an invasion of this wren into New England, giving a largenumber of records for various States ; most of these are fall and winterrecords, but there are enough breeding records mentioned to indicatethat the Carolina wren may be regarded as a rare breeding bird in atleast southern New England. It has long been known to breed onNaushon Island, off the coast of southern Massachusetts; Forbush(1929) mentions several other Massachusetts breeding records, andlOiight (1908) records a breeding record for Maine.Dr. Chapman (1912) says of the haunts of the Carolina wren : "Thecozy nooks and corners about the home of man which prove so attractiveto the House Wren are less commonly chosen by this bird. His wild
206 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
nature more often demands the freedom of the forests, and he shows nodisposition to adapt himself to new conditions. Undergrowths nearwater, fallen tree tops, brush heaps, and rocky places in the woodswhere he can dodge in and out and in a twinkling appear or disappearlike a feathered Jack-in-the-box, are the resorts he chooses."The last part of this statement is undoubtedly true, but there isplenty of evidence that he has learned "to adapt himself to new condi-tions." Milton P. Skinner (1928) , for example, says that, in the sand-hills of North Carolina, these wrens "are dwellers in the dooryards andabout houses, more even than in wilder haunts. Almost all kinds ofshrubbery attract them, but they like the thickest, thorny kind the best.While they are generally in the bushes and lower growth, they some-times go higher into trees, even as much as thirty feet above theground." Arthur H. Howell (1924) says that, in Alabama, "althoughpartial to low bottomland timber," it is "found also about farmyardsand in town gardens. Indeed, so domestic is it at times that it is oftencalled 'house wren'." Other observers give us similar impressions andthe bird certainly shows considerable adaptability in its choice of agreat variety of nesting sites about human structures. There is nodoubt, however, that it has always shown a preference for the wilderwoodland thickets, preferably along watercourses and in swamps, butalso in hammocks and in isolated clumps of trees and bushes on theprairies and pine barrens throughout the South.Courtship.?I can find no information on this subject, but Mrs.Amelia R. Laskey has sent me some notes that indicate some degree ofconstancy. A male banded June 25, 1934, was recaptured at intervalsuntil January 18, 1938 ; and a female banded November 19, 1934, wastaken at intervals until the summer of 1939. Thus the male was atleast 4^2 years old, and the female at least 5 years old. "Part of theperiod they are positively known to have been mates, as they worecolored plumes and were seen together in winter as well as in the nestingseason." Others have noticed that they are often seen in pairs allthrough winter.Nesting.?The Carolina wren originally nested in woodlands,thickets, brushy hollows, and swamps and along the banks of streams,where it could find cover ; and it still does so over most of its range,without taking advantage of the many opportunities offered in andabout human structures. In these wilder spots it may build its nestin a hole in a tree or stump, in the open crotch of a tree, in a denselybranched cedar, in the upturned roots of a fallen tree, on the groundunder the exposed roots of a tree or under dense undergrowth, in ahole in a bank or under its overhang among tangled roots, in a cavityin a stone wall, or even in a sheaf of grain in an open field. Nests insuch situations are hard to find and are probably not so often reportedas the more obvious sites about human dwellings.
CAROLINA WREN 207Most of the sites mentioned above are obviously at very low eleva-tions, seldom as much as 10 feet above ground, even in trees. ButM. G. Vaiden, of Rosedale, Miss., writes to me of a nest that was "30feet up in a black walnut. This nest was extremely large and locatedon a partially broken-off limb growing upward and almost parallelto the main body of the tree. A few sprouts had grown out from thebroken limb," which helped to prevent the nest from being blownaway. "The nest was composed of dried leaves and sticks and linedwith fowl feathers, forming a great ball with the entrance facingnorth and at the very center of the ball." Nests in such open situa-tions in trees are usually domed or arched over, with a side entrance.Nests of the more domestically inclined wrens have been reportedin a great variety of nooks and crannies in, about, or under buildingsof various kinds, under bridges, or in holes in fence posts. Almostany kind of receptacles left lying around, such as tin cans, coffee pots,pails, small baskets, pitchers, or empty boxes may be used. Old dis-carded hats and caps or the pockets of old clothes, coats, or overalls,left hanging in sheds or on porches, may offer acceptable nestingsites. Nests have been found in mail boxes, bird boxes, old hornets'nests, and ivy vines growing over porches ; and the nest is sometimesbuilt in an unused cupboard or on a mantel shelf inside a house.Dr. Witmer Stone (1911) writes: "In a country place near Philadel-phia, a pair of Carolina Wrens entered the sitting-room through awindow that was left partly open, and built their nest in the back of anupholstered sofa, entering where a hole had been torn in the back.Needless to say, they were not disturbed, and given full possession untilthe young were safely reared." Mr. Vaiden tells of a pair of thesewrens that raised a brood of young "in the pitcher of a pitcher-pump,"left in the basement of a house. "The parents came through the partl}^opened basement window and gave little attention to the humans thathad to occasionally go into the basement."Dr. George M. Sutton (1930) says that, in Brooke County, W. Va.,
"the bulky nests were found as a rule in out-buildings, and none wasfound in the woods far from a human dwelling. One nest was builtin a rumpled paper sack which lay on a shelf in a woodshed. * * *A nest found in 1917 was built into the corner of a large drygoodsbox which had been nailed to the shadowy back of a barn." Thecavity was far too big, but a large lot of material had been broughtin and the structure was neat. "In front of the nest proper was acrude path of weed-stalks and leaves possibly eighteen inches inlength. The entire nest with its approach could be lifted easily, soskilfully were the stalks and leaf stems interwoven."Clara Calhoun (1911) tells of a most interesting nest that wasbuilt "in a bolt-rack in a busy country blacksmith shop. * * *The mother bird knew no fear, but flew boldly about, gathering shav-
208 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMings and excelsior fairly under the smith's hands and feet, approach-ing the nest over a horse that was being shod, and often keepingher place upon it when the smith worked at the vise for weldingtires, * * * undaunted by the ringing blows or showers of sparks."A brood of five young was raised in this nest.The Carolina wren is satisfied with almost any soft and pliablematerial that is available with which to build its nest, such as grasses,weed stalks, strips of inner bark, leaves, mosses, rootlets, and feathers;many nests contain pieces of cast-ofT snakeskin, and some are partiallylined with this. The lining generally consists of fine grass, fine root-lets, hair, feathers, and sometimes Spanish moss. George F. Simmons( 1925 ) adds the following materials, used in Texas nests : Small twigs,corn husks, pieces of paper, string, thread, wool, rags, and leafskeletons.I am told that Herbert L. Stoddard has a record of a successfulnesting in a farm tractor that was in daily use.Eggs.?The Carolina wren lays four to six eggs to a set ; probablyfive is the commonest number ; sets of eight have been recorded. Theseare mostly ovate but often more rounded and sometimes somewhatelongated. The ground color is usually pure white, but often pink-ish white or creamy white. They are usually more heavily markedwith larger spots than other wrens' eggs, but not always, as some arevery sparingly and faintly marked with fine dots. The markings maybe evenly distributed, but generally tliey are irregularly scatteredand often concentrated in a ring about the larger end. The markingsare in several lighter and darker shades of reddish brown, and thereare sometimes underlying blotches in light shades of "Quaker drab"or "lavender," producing a very pretty effect.The measurements of 60 eggs average 19.1 by 14.9 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 20.8 by 15.2, 19.8 by 15.8, and16.8 by 14.2 millimeters.Young.?The period of incubation is said to be 12 to 14 days, andthe young remain in the nest for about the same length of time. Evi-dently the task of incubation is performed wholly by the female ; atleast I can find no evidence that the male ever incubates. But bothparents work together industriously to feed the young, in the nest andfor a time after they leave it. At least two broods are ordinarilyraised in a season and often three in the more southern localities.Mcllwraith (1894) says that even in Ontario "the Carolina Wren isa very prolific species, the female turning over to the male the careof the first brood before they are able to shift for themselves, whileshe proceeds to deposit a second set of eggs in another nest, whichthe male has prepared for their reception. Family number two isturned over to the male in due course, and in this way three broodsare raised during the season in a very short time."
CAROLINA WREN 209Phimagcs.?Soon after hatching the young wrens are scantily dec-orated with slate-colored down; the juvenal plumage develops rapidlyand they are well clothed by the time they leave the nest. In thejuvenal plumage young birds look much like the adults, but they arepaler in color and the plumage is softer in texture ; the wing covertsare tipped with buffy white, the superciliary stripe is less clearlywhite, the underparts are whiter, and there is some dusky barring ormottling on the flanks and sides of the head.The first winter plumage is acquired by a partial postjuvenal moltin August and September, involving the contour plumage, the wingcoverts, and the tail, but not the rest of the wings. This plumageis darker and richer in color than the juvenal plumage, chestnut orVandyke brown above and deep cinnamon below, with white tips onthe wing coverts and a whiter superciliary stripe, young and old be-coming practically indistinguishable.Adults have a complete postnuptial molt in August and September
;
after this molt, in fresh fall plumage, all the colors are brighter andricher than in the worn and faded plumage seen in spring. The sexesare alike in all plumages.Food.?In his study of the food of the Carolina wren, Professor Beal(Beal, McAtee, and Kalmbach, 1916) examined 291 stomachs, repre-senting every month. The contents were found to consist of 94.18percent animal matter, nearly all insects, and 5.82 percent vegetablematter, chiefly seeds. Of the animal food, beetles made up 13.64 per-cent, all injurious except 1.71 percent of predatory ground beetles;among the beetles found were several species of weevils, including thecottonboll weevil, 31 individuals being found in 18 stomachs; otherbeetles were the two cucumber beetles, the bean leaf beetle, and numer-ous flea beetles. Of the Hymenoptera, ants amounted to 4.63 percentand bees and wasps to about the same. Hemiptera?stink bugs, soldierbugs, leaf-legged bugs, leafhoppers, and chinch bugs?made up 18.91percent, one of the largest items. Scale insects destructive to orangeswere found in one stomach. The largest item of all proved to becaterpillars and a few moths, 21.73 percent. Orthoptera, includinggrasshoppers, crickets, and cockroaches and their eggs, made up 12.57percent of the food. Flies are evidently not popular, as the averagefor the year was only a little over 3 percent ; daddy-longlegs and crane-flies were the most popular. On the other hand, spiders seem to bevery attractive; they were eaten in every month, and from April toAugust to the extent of 16.67 percent, and the average for the yearwas 10.54 percent; spiders must be easily obtained in the many nooksand crannies that the Carolina wren explores. Other small items ofanimal food included millipeds, sowbugs, and snails, "Vertebrateanimals would hardly be expected to form part of the diet of so smalla bird, but the Carolina wren eats them often. Kemains of lizards
210 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMwere found in 14 stomachs, tree frogs in 8, and a snake in 1 ; totaling1.92 percent." Of the vegetable food, a little fruit pulp was found ina few stomachs, seeds of bayberry in 20, sweet gum in 10, poison ivyin 7, sumac in 4, pine in 2, weed seeds in 7, and ground-up acorns in 2.Several observers have noted that Carolina wrens will come freelyto feeding stations, if placed near brush piles, thickets, or other suit-able shelter, where they will feed on ground peanuts, suet, marrow ofbones, or ground hamburg steak.Behavior.?Like others of its tribe, the Carolina wren is the embodi-ment of tireless energy and activity, seldom still for a moment, as hedodges in and out of the underbrush or creeps over and around a pileof logs, appearing and disappearing with the suddenness of a mouse,diving into one crevice in a wood pile, and popping out of another insome unexpected jjlace. His movements are exceedingly quick and sud-den, accompanied by frequent teetering of the body and nervous jerk-ing of the upturned tail, chattering to himself the while, or stoppingoccasionally to pour out one or two strains of his joyous song, for heis a merry little chap and seems to enjoy his elusive ways. We maywatch him thus, if we stand quietly, but if we move toward him, heimmediately darts into the thickest cover and disappears ; it is uselessto pursue him, for he has a tantalizing way of keeping out of sightahead of us and mocking us with his derisive chatter; he is more thana match for us in the game of hide and seek. C. J. Maynard (1896)says : "I have frequently seen these wrens in isolated bushes and, afterseeing them vanish, have beat about the place where they disappeared,then through it without starting them, afterwards finding that thewily birds had escaped by running with great rapidity beneath thegrass and weeds to the next thicket."Although this wren does not like to be pursued, or even approachedtoo closely, he has sufficient curiosity and boldness to do his own ap-proaching. If we sit or stand still in some inconspicuous position, andespecially if we make a squeaking noise, he will be one of the firstbirds to show himself and may come within a few feet of us to lookus over ; but a move on our part causes him to vanish immediately.His shyness and timidity are apparent enough, especially in hiswoodland haunts, and it is difficult to surprise the female on her nest,from which she slips away quietly and unobserved. But the pair haveoften shown remarkable friendliness and confidence in human beingsby building their nests in and about our premises, by coming to ourfeeding stations, and by roosting under the shelter of our homes. Thesewrens have been known to roost several times in abandoned hornets'nests; for example, Prof. Maurice Brooks (1932) writes:Some time during the fall of 1927 my father found, and carried to the house,a verp large nest built by white-faced hornets {Vespa maculata). This nest was
CAROLINA WREN 211hung up in an out-building, and no attention was paid to it until late in thewinter when we found, to our surprise, that a pair of Carolina Wrens had en-larged the opening, and were using it as a nightly roosting place.The birds continued to roost there until spring ; when they carefully constructeda nest of their own, in the top of the hornets' nest, away from the opening. Forsome reason, they later abandoned this home in favor of one in a nearby bird box.When fall came we waited with interest to see if they would again take up theirold abode. Going out to look one frosty morning before daylight, we heard themstirring in the nest, and they used it regularly from then on. This they haverepeated every year until the present winter.Another nest was placed in the same building last fall, and the resident pair,whether or not the original 1927 individuals we do not know, immediately tookup quarters in the enlarged opening of the new nest. In their new home they areplainly visible, and they have allowed us to study them with flashlights. Theydo not seem to be in the least disturbed when we suddenly turn a light uponthem. The outer bird roosts with one wing spread across the opening, and this,perhaps, shuts out most of the light.One morning, just at daybreak, I went out to the building where the nests arehung, lighted a small gas stove, and placed before it a bucket of water over whicha layer of ice had frozen. Returning in a few minutes, I found both birds perchedon the rim of the bucket, as near to the fire as they could get. Whether the heator the light was the attraction I cannot say, but they presented as charming abird picture as I have ever seen.In The Migrant^ volume 14, pages 1-5, 1943, is a symposium on howbirds spend their winter nights. In this the Carolina wren is reportedas roosting in a pocket in a shirt that hung on a clothesline, in a fold ofan old portiere hanging in a garage, and in a pocket of an old coat thathung on a porch.Carolina wrens, like other wrens, are not much given to protractedflights ; most of their short flights in their favorite retreats are erraticdartings from one perch to another or from one log to another; butin longer flights in the open, which they seldom have to make, theirflights are direct and straight with rapid beats of their short wings.Most of their activity is near the ground, hopping from branch tobranch with sprightly activitj^, or creeping over, around, and underpiles of wood and always prying into every nook and crevice in searchof spiders and insect food. Several observers have noted their abilityto climb the trunks of trees, sometimes to a considerable height, pryinginto the crevices in the bark for food much after the manner of thecreepers.Voice.?The Carolina wren is one of our great singers, a beautifulsinger and a most persistent singer. It is one of the few birds thatsing more or less during every month in the year, though it sings mostpersistently and most enthusiastically during the late winter andspring months ; it sings in all kinds of weather, spring sunshine, sum-mer rains, or winter snowstorms ; during the height of its song period itmay be heard all through the day, from dawn to dusk. It has a varied
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repertoire; the songs of other birds are often suggested, or perhapsimitated, leading to some confusion at times, but it has a very distinctand cliaracteristic song of its own, which is unmistakable.The song is a loud, ringing combination of rich, whistling notes,given with a definite and emphatic swing and a decided accent ; it canbe heard for a long distance and is so pleasing in its cheering effectthat it can hardly pass unnoticed by even the most casual observer.The phrases consist of two to four syllables, usually two ?r three, andeach phrase is repeated two or three times with short intervals betweenthe phrases. Among the 28 references to the song of this bird thatI have consulted, I find an almost endless variety of interpretations,expressed in human words or in expressive syllables. I shall selectonly a few of the best of each which, to my mind, most clearly recallthe song. Among the human words, those that please me best are
"tea-kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle" ; others are "sweet heart, sweet heart,"
"sweet William, sweet William," "come to me, come to me," "Richelieu,Richelieu, Richelieu," "Jew-Pet-er, Jew-Pet-er," "tree- double-tree,double-tree, double-tree," "sugar to eat, sugar to eat, sugar to eat,sugar," "which jailer, w^hich jailer," etc. All these phrases seem tosuggest what is the most characteristic song of the Carolina wren;some of them may also suggest the song of the Maryland yellow-throat, but there is a great difference in the tone and quality.Similar suggestions of the same song are found in the many differ-ent syllables used to describe it, such as whee-udel, whee-udel, whee-udel; che-whortel^ che-whortel; jo-i'eaper^ jo-repar, jo-ree/ willy-toay^ willy-way; turtree^ turtree^ tuftvee; and there are many othersimilar renderings.There are, of course, various other songs, notably a loud whistlelike that of the cardinal and one that sounds like the peto^ peto^ petoof the tufted titmouse, as suggested by some of the above syllables.Songs have been heard that resemble the rattle of the kingfisher, thecall of the flicker, and songs of the pine warbler, towhee, red-wingedblackbird, meadowlark, Baltimore oriole, bluebird, catbird, white-eyed vireo, scarlet tanager, and song sparrow, all of which have giventhe wren credit as an imitator of birds that it has heard, and it hasbeen called the "mocking wren." Some of these songs may be actualimitations, but many of them may be only expressions of its own greatversatility in song. Nuttall (1832) goes into this matter at greatlength, describing many songs, and adds: "Amidst these imitationsand variations, which seem almost endless, and lead the stranger toimagine himself, even in the depth of winter, surrounded by all thequaint choristers of the summer, there is still, with our capriciousand tuneful mimic, a favorite theme more constantly and regularlyrepeated than the rest."In addition to its varied songs, the Carolina wren has a number of
CAROLINA WREN 213
call, alarm, or scolding notes, among which Mr. Simmons (1925) lists
"calls, with much rolling of the r's, tervp; tierry-tier-r-'p; chier-r-r;cheerrp^ tieu u u; a slower tieur-r-r^ tieur-r-, tieur-r-r^ about a twosecond interval between each; cack; clach; clink; clinking metallic?rattles; musical trills and tree-toad-like k-r-r-r-r-ingsyDawson (1903) writes: "On all occasions this nervous little creatureappears to be full of a sort of compressed air, which escapes from timeto time in a series of mild explosions, like the lid of a teakettle beingjarred up and down by steam. When the valve is opened a little widerthere follows an accelerando rattling call, which seems to be modeledafter the chirr of the red squirrel ; and when the throttle is held wideopen the rattling notes are telescoped together into an emphatic
^kurr'r'st,^ which brings one up standing."Aretas A. Saunders has 78 records of the songs of the Carolina wren.P'ollowing are some quotations from his notes : "In form the song ismuch like that of the Maryland yellowthroat, but the louder, clearerquality, lower pitch, and frequency of liquid consonant sounds make itsound quite different. Individual birds sing a great number of varia-tions. In June 1930 1 recorded eight different songs from one individ-ual in less than half an hour. In 1928 a wren of this species lived in alocality that I visited frequently, and I recorded 36 different songsfrom it through the season.
"In pitch my records vary from G ' ' to A ' ' ', one tone more than anoctave, and all the notes, so far as my car could determine, lower thanthe highest note of the piano. The widest pitch variation in one songis four and a half tones, and the least one tone, the average about twotones."The length of a single song varies from about 1% to 3^5 seconds anddepends mainly on the number of times the bird repeats the j)hrase ofthe song. As a rule, one phrase occupies about two-fifths of a second,except in unusual songs where a phrase is longer or shorter thanusual."Field marks.?The Carolina wren is the largest of the wrens fomid ineastern North America, hence the former name "great Carolina wren."It is rather a chunky bird, rich reddish brown above and buff below,except for the white chin and the barred under tail coverts. There isa conspicuous, long, white stripe over the eye. The tail is brown likethe back and is barred, but it is not fan-shaped or white-tipped, like thetail of Bewick's wren.Enemies.?This wren is annoyed by the usual external parasites thatinfest other birds; Harold S. Peters (193G) lists four species of ticks,two of mites, and one louse that cause some irritation. Probably somedie from eating poisoned flies and other insects, and predatory mam-mals and birds may take their toll. The house wren is a competitor for75S06G?48 15
214 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
nesting sites, but Dr. Sutton (1930) found no evidence that the housewren molested the nests of the Carolina wren, and concluded that thesetwo species could live together with less friction than the house wrenand Bewick's wren.Dr. Friedmann (1929) gives several instances in which this wrenwas victimized by the cowbird ; and Mrs. Nice (1931) lists 4 nests out of16 that were so parasitized in Oklahoma.Winter.?The Carolina wren is preferably a sedentary species; itlikes to remain where it has found a suitable home throughout theyear. This trait has somewhat limited the northward extension ofits permanent range. Migratory birds may extend their range north-ward in spring and summer and retire southward before winter ; theythus escape the rigors of a northern winter ; but this wren does notseem to take this wise precaution. During summers and mild wintersthey increase in numbers throughout the middle and northern States,as illustrated by Dr. Townsend's (1909) account of the invasion ofNew England; these are probably umnated or young birds seekingnew territory. But they are not hardy birds, and the next severewinter may result disastrously for the adventurous pioneers. Mostof their food is obtained on or near the ground, and when a deep fallof snow covers the ground for a long time and is accompanied bysevere cold, most of the wrens succumb to cold and starvation. Asa result we have alternating periods of scarcity in the northern Statesand probably shall never have permanent abundance. Forbush(1929) gives the records for several such periods in New Englandfrom 1903 to 1922.Even as far south as Washington, D. C, similar fluctuations innumbers have been noted by Dr. Alexander Wetmore (1923), whosays:Since the winter of 1917-1918, when the Carolina Wren was greatly reducedin numbers in the Wasliington region, this species has increased graduallyuntil the fall of 1921 (after four breeding seasons) it was again fairly common,though still somewhat below its normal abundance. * * * ^ sudden heavysnowfall that continued from January 27 to 29, 1922, when the snow reachedthe unusual depth of twenty-six inches once more proved disastrous to the birdunder discussion. The heavy blanket of snow melted slowly and not until Febru-ary 3 did bare ground appear. * * * Observations during February andMarch show that the Carolina Wren has again decreased in this region thoughthose that remain are somewhat greater in number than was the case in spring of1918. The supposition advanced in my former note that decrease in this specieswas due not to cold but to the heavy blanket of snow that buried the normalfood supply, seems substantiated.And Prof. Maurice Brooks (1936) reports that in West Virginia,where this wren has always been one of the commonest permanent-resident birds, it practically disappeared during the severe winter of1935-36. During late January "this section was subjected to tern-
CAROLINA WREN 215peratures ranging from sixteen to thirty degrees below zero, and afterthat the species was not again noted until April. One boy in UpshurCounty found five Carolina Wrens frozen to death, and there wereother reports of individuals found dead."The wrens that survive northern winters generally live in shelteredlocalities. The one that Dr. Townsend and I saw at Ipswich, Mass.,was living in a planted thicket of spruces near a house and close tothe sea on February 7, 1909, where it was seen again up to March 12.Dr. Witmer Stone (1911) writes:In the low, flat ground bordering the tide-water creelis of southwestern NewJersey, they are particularly abundant, especially in midwinter, when it alwaysseemed to me that most of the Cardinals and Carolina Wrens gathered in theseswamps from all the country round about. Here they find food and sheltersuitable to their needs, and here the winter sun seems to shine more warmlythan back in the higher grounds of Pennsylvania.The Carolina Wren, however, is not entirely confined to these low grounds inwinter, but ranges well up the narrow valleys and deep ravines, and oftenwe find him along the rocky banks of some ravine where flows a narrow, tum-bling stream and here the hemlocks of the North mingle with the redbud andtulip-tree of the South.A note recently received from Mrs. Laskey states that Nashville,Tenn., "experienced an unusually cold winter in 1940, the low tem-peratures and heavy snows in January were disastrous apparentlyto our Carolina Wrens. They were very scarce during the followingnesting season. Previously, everywhere one went, its cheery songand its trills could be heard in winter. This year, 1941, they havenot been so scarce, but in my observations not reaching normalnumbers."Mrs. Mary C. Rhoads (1924) tells an interesting story of a Carolinawren that spent the winter nights in her conservatory in Haddonfield,N. J. He entered each night and left each morning, at first throughan open door, but eventually through a hole she made for him whichhe learned to use. He roosted, ate, drank, bathed, and sang there allwinter, sometimes even entering the dining room to pick up crumbs;he continued to patronize the conservatory from sometime in the falluntil March 24, and must have made a delightful winter guest.Mr. Saunders writes to me from Fairfield, Conn. : "My records sinceI have lived in Fairfield show that this bird was not found from 1920to 1925, but was recorded fairly frequently from 1925 to 1933. Thenit disappeared again till 1939 but has been present since April of thatyear up to the present (November 1941) ."DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Eastern United States and northeastern Mexico; non-migratory.
216 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe Carolina wren breeds north to southeastern Nebraska (Supe-rior) ; southern Iowa (Des Moines and Sigourney) ; southern Michi-gan (Ann Arbor and Detroit) ; southern Ontario (Point Pelee, Lon-don, and Toronto) ; southern Connecticut (Bridgeport, New Haven,and Chester) ; southern Rhode Island (Middletown) ; and southeasternMassachusetts (Naushon). From this line the Carolina Wren isfound in all the States south to Florida, the Gulf coast and Jiortheast-ern Mexico; Tamaulipas (Ciudad Victoria) ; Nuevo Leon (Monterrey,Santa Catarina, and Linares) ; and Coahuila (Sabinas). West toCoahuila (Sabinas) ; central Texas (Nueces, Mason, and Abilene)
;
Oklahoma (Wichita Mountains and Fort Reno) ; central Kansas(Wichita and Clearwater); and southeastern Nebraska (Superior).The range of the Carolina wren seems to be extending northward,since there are a number of records of its occurrence north to SouthDakota (Yankton County) ; Minnesota (Bigstone Lake and Minne-apolis) ; Wisconsin (Madison and New London) ; Michigan (GrandRapids and Sand Point) ; southern New Hampshire (Alst^ad andRye Beach) ; and southeastern Maine (Falmouth).The above outline is for the entire species, which has been dividedinto four subspecies or geographic races. The Carolina wren {T. I.ludomcianus) ranges south to central Texas, the Gulf States, andnorthern Florida; the Florida wren {T. I. miamensis) is found in thepeninsula of Florida from Levy and Putnam Counties southward;Burleigh's Carolina wren {T. I. hurleighi) is found at Cat, Ship, andHorn Islands, Miss.; the Lomita wren [T. I. lomitensis) is found inthe lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas and northern Tamaulipas,Mexico. Other races occur in Mexico.Casual records.?The Carolina wren has been observed in Burling-ton, Vt., from July 10 to October 5, 1936; at Center Ossipee, N. H., onAugust 21, 1940; one observed on June 21, 1916, at Beaver Pond,Maine; and there is one record of breeding in Maine, eggs taken atNorway Lake in June 1893.Egg dates.?Florida: 44 records, April 1 to June 24; 24 records,April 17 to May 6, indicating the height of the season.Georgia : 33 records, April 5 to July 3 ; 17 records. May 2 to June 15.Pennsylvania : 8 records, April 8 to July 22.Texas : 39 records, March 13 to July 9 ; 20 records, April 10 to May 3.THRYOTHORUS LUDOVICIANUS BURLEIGHI LoweryBURLEIGH'S CAROLINA WRENIn naming and describing this island race, George H. Lowery, Jr.(1940) , says that it is "similar to T. I. ludovicianus (Latham) to whichit is most closely related, but differs in being somewhat duller andmore sooty above and averaging slightly paler below; color of thepileum not a great deal duller than the back ; barring of the tail less
FLORIDA WREN 217distinct than in Ivdo vicianus; size not significantly diii'erent fromT. I. euronotiLS but easily distinguished from that race on the basis ofits lighter coloration."Lowery gives the range of this wren as: "Eesident on the islandslying well offshore from the Mississippi Coast ; known to occur on CatIsland, Ship Island, and Horn Island. Not improbably it will befound on certain of the islands off the Alabama and Louisiana coastas well." THRYOTHORUS LUDOVICIANUS MIAMENSIS RidgwayFLORIDA WRENHABITSThe Florida wren is a common resident in nearly all the Floridapeninsula, all but the northwestern part, or from Levy and PutnamCounties southward, according to the 1931 Check-list. Mr, Lowery(1940) does not subdivide this race but says that it is "typical fromGainesville and Palatka southward."This is the largest and darkest of all the races. Eidgv^ay (1904)describes it as "most like T. I. herlandieri^ but coloration still darkerand richer, and size much greater (decidedly larger than any otherform of the species) ; upper parts rich chestnut to dark chestnut,the superciliary stripe decidedly buffy (except in worn summerplumage) ; under parts (except chin and upper throat) deep claycolor or tawny-ochraceous, the flanks tinged with chestnut and(sometimes also the sides) barred with chestnut or dusky."We found this wren everywhere that we went in Florida in thelive-oak and palmetto hammocks, in the swamps, and in dense thicketsin the river bottoms, singing more or less all winter and more oftenheard than seen. We found no nests, but Mr. Howell (1932) saysthat "the nests are placed on the ground in the woods, often under-neath an overhanging bank, in hollow logs or stumps, or sometimes onthe sill of an outbuilding, or in a box or can within the building. Thebreeding season extends from March to July, and two or more broodsare raised each season."C. J. Maynard (1896) says:The usual situations chosen by the wrens on Indian River were at the bottomsof the "boots" of the palmettoes. The "boot" is the base of the dead leaf stalkswhich adhere to the tree after the top has decayed and fallen off, they are quitebroad, slightly concave, and extend upward in an oblique direction leaving aspace between them and the trunk; the fronds in falling often cover the topwith a fibrous debris which is imijervious to water and the cavities beneath forma snug nesting place for the Carolina Wrens. Many more nests will be found inthese situations than elsewhere, especially in the wilderness; but I once foundone built between two palmetto leaves which liad dropped over in such a positionthat their surfaces were horizontal and only three or four inches apart, forminga floor as well as a roof for the home of the Wrens. They had conveyed a lai-geamount of suitable material into this place and formed a cozy domicile. The
218 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfronds were swayed by every passing breeze, yet in such a manner as notto injure the structure which was between them.In all other respects the habits of the Florida wren seem to be verysimilar to those of the northern race.Eggs.?The eggs of the Florida wren are substantially like those ofthe Carolina wren. The measurements of 40 eggs average 19.0 by 14.8millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 20.5 by 14.9,19.8 by 15.8, 16.3 by 14.9, and 18.6 by 14.2 millimeters.THRYOTHORUS LUDOVICIANUS LOMITENSIS SennettLOMITA WRENPlate 38HABITSThis small, dull-colored subspecies seems to occupy a rather limitedrange in the lower valley of the Rio Grande, in Texas and in northernTamaulipas, in Mexico. The map published by Mr. Lowery (1940)shows decided gaps between the range of this race and the ranges ofberlandieri, in Mexico, and his new race oberholseri, in southern Texas.He says: "When one views the great areas apparently uninhabited byCarolina wrens bordering the Rio Grande above and below Laredo,the isolation of lomitensis becomes obvious. It thus seems highlyimprobable that lomitensis comes geographically in contact with otherraces thereby suggesting a factor which might be responsible for itsclear-cut taxonomic characters." In naming this race, George B.Sennett (1890) describes it well as follows:Compared with T. ludovicianus this race is much lighter in its general appear-ance ; the color of the back is also different, ludovicianus being reddish brownor briglit cinnamon, while lomitensis is of the chocolate order of browns, fadinginto grayish brown during the breeding season. There is also more white onlomitensis than on ludovieiamis ; the barring of the tail is also different. Inludovicianus the bars of black are wonderfully regular, extending across bothwebs in a continuous line, while in lomitensis the bars of black are joined by ashading of white or creamy and are broken and irregular, thus giving the generalmottled appearance and lighter color. The flanks, too, in all old birds of lomi-tensis show a decided tendency to barring, while in ludovicianus this is want-ing. * * *This new race seems to be resident in that part of the Rio Grande "Valley lyingadjacent to the river where the forest is heaviest, for none of the forms of thisgenus has been taken either above or below this tinjhcr tract. Hidalgo, whereI first obtained the birds, and Lomita Ranch, where I secured the greatest number,are situated only eight miles apart on the Texas side of the river. In this localitythe heavy timber is near the river, and north of it the chaparral extends for adistance of about fifteen miles; next, still northward, lies a desert of sand reach-ing more than fifty miles until it meets the strong vegetable gi'owth of the valleyof the Nueces River.Mr. Sennett (1878) had collected a number of these wrens in theabove locality some dozen years earlier, which he recorded under the
NORTHERN CACTUS WREN 219name herlandieri; these specimens were puzzling for a while, untilenough of the Mexican race could be obtained for comparison ; so it wasnot until 1890 that this isolated race could be satisfactorily describedand named. He says that "this bird breeds near the ground, seldomhigher than 5 feet, in hollow trees, stubs, and even dead limbs lying onthe ground." He could not discover that it differed in any of its habitsfrom typical Carolina wrens elsewhere. He collected a number ofeggs, which were evidently similar to those of the northern bird.Eggs.?The eggs of this wren are indistinguishable from those ofother races of the species. The measurements of 40 eggs average 19.2by 14.6 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 21.5by 14.6, 20.5 by 16,2, 16.8 by 14.5, and 17.4 by 13.0 millimeters.HELEODYTES BRUNNEICAPILLUS COUESI (Sharpc)NORTHERN CACTUS WRENPlates 39-42HABITSContributed by Robest S. WoodsBest known through the abundance of its conspicuous flask-shapednests, the cactus wren well repays a close acquaintance with its owninteresting and unique personality. It is a bird that cannot easilybe confused with any other North American species, either in ap-pearance or habits.The northern cactus wren is widely distributed through the LowerSonoran Zone along the Mexican border from Texas to the Pacificand as far north as southern Utah and Nevada, but it is actually foundonly in those comparatively limited regions where thorny shrubs andtrees or the more aborescent species of cactus offer nesting sites atleast 2 or 3 feet above ground and capable of supporting its bulkystructures. Vegetation of this type is frequently encountered on sunnyhillsides, on the mesas adjacent to mountain ranges, and along gravellywatercourses. Though primarily a species of the lower country, Mrs.Florence Merriam Bailey (1928) cites records of the cactus wren'soccurrence at altitudes of approximately 6,000 feet in New Mexico.W. E. D. Scott (1888a) states, however, that in southern Arizonait is "seldom found above 4,000 feet on the foothills of the severalmountain chains traversing the Territory."On the Pacific slope of southern California, suitable habitats aremuch less plentiful than in the more arid regions to the eastwardand are steadily being reduced by cultivation and subdivision or bymere growth of population with its attendant increase in vandalism.Unlike many desert birds, the cactus wren accepts the encroachmentsof civilization rather graciously, and occasionally it builds its nest
220 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
about houses or bams ; but it is doubtful whether it would long remainin any locality after the entire removal of the native vegetation. Itis easy to overestimate the abundance of these birds, not only on ac-count of the plurality of nests built by each family but also becausetheir vociferousness usually insures one's consciousness of their pres-ence whenever they are near.The geographical subdivision of this species has been attended byconsiderable confusion and revision, pi-obably because of wide indi-vidual variations, and the number of races ascribed to the UnitedStates has fluctuated from one to three and back again. Dr. EdgarA. Mearns (1902b) described the subspecies couesi from Texas, an-thonyi from the interior deserts, and hryanti from the Pacific slope, thesecond being distinguished from the others by generally lighter colora-tion, and the last by broader white stripes on the back and more whiteon the tail. In all these, according to Mearns, the throat is mainlyblack, this feature separating them from affinis of southern BajaCalifornia. However, a great degree of variation seems to exist inthe pattern of the black throat markings ; these are variously describedand illustrated as spots, streaks, and occasionally as coalescent spots,but these differences have not figured as diagnostic characters. In allthe adult individuals known to the present writer in Los AngelesCounty, Calif., the black spots of the throat have coalesced to forma conspicuous throat patch, the upper part of which usually is almostif not quite solidly black and is outlined sharply against the plainwhite chin. The l^lack area extends slightly higher along the sides ofthe upper throat and gradually breaks up into streaks or chains ofspots on the chest and the sides of the throat. In connection with thistendency in coloration, possibly there may be some significance in theapparent differences in nest-building and singing habits hereinafternoted.Nesting.?The list of nesting sites utilized by cactus wrens is a longone. Following a study of a large number of nests near the base of theSanta Rita Mountains south of Tucson, Ariz., Mrs. Bailey (1922)wrote
:
While the name Cactus Wron was justified iu this locality as in others by theinnumerable nests found in cholla cactus, here thorny trees and bushes especiallycatsclaw zizyphus {Z. lycioidcs) or lote bush, were also used extensively, whilemesquite and tlie dense shrubby haclvberry or grenjefio were used occasionally fornesting sites. It was interesting to note that zizyphus bushes containing nests gen-erally stood under mesquite trees, so getting double protection. The pi'otectionafforded by tlie armament of thorns was often so complete that it was impossibleto reach a nest without cutting away the obstructing branches. Even that, how-ever, did not always satisfy the nest makers, for such bulky, conspicuous nestsneed to be safeguarded in every way from hawks, owls, and other enemies.Thirty-five out of sixty-four nests examined were not only protected by the en-tangling thorns of the surrounding branches but were built within clusters of the
NORTHERN CACTUS WREN 221
red-flowered mistletoe {Phoradendron caUfornicum) which in many casespartially or wholly concealed them. One nest lay on a level branch covered byan unsual horizontal growth of mistletoe and showed only as a darkened massinside, but most of them were in round ball-like masses of mistletoe, commonlyat the ends of branches in terminal mistletoe rosettes, frequently so dense thatit was impossible to obtain nest statistics or photographs. One of the nests with-out mistletoe protection was built under an unbrella-like mass of foliage.* * * When not built inside a mass of mistletoe the nest was variously sup-ported?by a crotch, by a horizontal branch and the trunk of the tree, or by anangle of branches.A summary of the nests examined was appended, showing that 31were in cholla cactus, at heights of 2% to 6 feet from the ground, whileof the 64 others, "38 were in catsclaw (29 in red mistletoe), 17 in zizy-phus, 5 in mesquite (in red mistletoe) , 4 in shrubby hackberry ; and al-together 34 in red mistletoe. The approximate height from the gromidvaried from 4 to 9 feet. * * * "While some of the cholla nestsexamined were substantial and well protected, most of them were de-cidedly inferior to the nests found in other bushes and trees. Beinglower and more exposed to wind and storm, especially in the case ofthose on top of the lowest chollas, they had apparently been blown topieces, presenting a most dilapidated appearance."In New Mexico, says Mrs. Bailey (1928) , "the bayonet-pointed headsof the tree yucca (T'wc<7?ra<:/^<3s?) are often chosen. * * * Two nestsseen were safely placed between the spears of adjoining yucca heads."F. C. Willard (1923) mentions some unusual sites in Arizona: "Onepair built for several years in the hollow cornice of a schoolhouse. Theentrance was through a hole cut one winter by a visiting flicker. An-other site was in an old woodj)ecker's nesting cavity which was twenty-five feet up in a large sycamore, one of a line of these trees extending outfrom the foothills of the Huachuca Mountains. A broken-out cavityin a sahuaro cactus is also rather out of the ordinary for a Cactus Wrento choose as a nesting site."In coastal southern California, the choice of acceptable nesting sitesis more restricted. On the gravelly river washes, such as that ofthe San Gabriel River, Opuntia parryi^ the only "cholla" {CyUndro-puntia) present, is rather small in stature, so that only the largestspecimens offer suitable situations. Most of the pricklypears {Platyo-puntia) are procumbent in habit, but a large-jointed form {O. occi-dentalis) furnishes a few nesting sites of the required minimumheight of 2 or 2i/^ feet. Large clumps of this latter species also occuron some of the south-fronting hillsides. Thorny trees and shrubs areabsent, but nests are occasionally built in large bushes such as RhiLSlaurina and R. ovata^ or even in orange trees in a grove, at heights ofaround 8 feet. One nest was placed on a four-by-four lookout underthe gable of a barn roof, another between palm leaves on the roof on apergola, and W. Leon Dawson (1923) mentions that "Mr. Frank S.
222 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDaggett found a nest in an apricot tree, and another one, still more re-markable, on the cross arm of a power-line pole, near Azusa, at a heightof 30 feet."It would appear that cactus wrens appreciate the protection affordedby the proximity of dwellings; at any rate, they readily avail them-selves of dooryard specimen cacti as nesting sites. In addition to theuse of "choUas" in the writer's yard at Azusa, they have maintaineda nest almost continuously for several years between the verticalcolumns of a good-sized Cereus, building a new one from time to timeupon the collapsed ruins of the old.The nest of the cactus wren is more than a mere receptacle for hold-ing eggs and young. It serves as an actual home for the bird through-out the year, a protection against cold, rain, and enemies at night andperhaps against storms at any time. It is kept in repair and rebuiltwhen necessary, and each young bird, upon reaching maturity, preparesits own domicile against the coming winter. This use, of course, callsfor a larger and more elaborate structure than most birds' nests. Mrs.Bailey (1922) thus describes the nests observed in Arizona
:
In form, the Cactus Wren's nest suggests a retort, having a large globularchamber about 6 inches in diameter approached through a long passageway orentrance, the whole normally about 12 inches in length, the mouth of the en-trance being about 3 inches above the base of the globular chamber. This nestchamber in course of years becomes a thick felted mass of gray, weathered plantfibers so hard that saucer-like sections sometimes crack ofE from the back show-ing the solid, sodden bottom of the nest. The entrance, on the contrary, is madeof long straw-like plant stems which may easily get blown about and so oftenneed replenishing.When the old nests are repaired and ready for winter use these new straw-colored entrances often afford a striking contrast to the old gray globes, althoughoccasionally the new material is lavishly distributed over the whole top of thenest. One nest, found on March 21, looked new, only straw-colored materialshowing from the few possible points of observation; but it might easily havehad merely a coating of fresh material. A mass of fuzzy plant material was out-side the mouth. An old gray nest fragment which might have supplied foundationmaterial was behind the nest. Besides replenishing the straw entrance, the wrensre-line for cold weather. In one instance fur, and in many instances the smallgray body-feathers of the Gambel Quail, and sometimes well-marked feathersof other species of birds, were seen in the entrances and about the mouths. Onenest used for roosting purposes during the winter, when examined for eggs onApril 30, had its globular chamber so thickly lined with soft feathers that itsuggested a feather bed.Considerable variation and adaptability were shown in the construction ofthe nests examined. Sometimes in the process of repair the angle of the entrancewas changed. In one case, while the old nest faced east, the new entrance facedsouth by east, almost at right angles, presumably for better support for the mouthand larger twigs for perches at the mouth.Mrs. Bailey also found that while the entrances of the nests facedin all directions, the greatest number were toward the southwest.In the San Gabriel Valley I have been unable to detect any preference
NORTHERN CACTUS WREN 223in this regard. In the Cereus previously referred to, the successivenests have faced in various directions; and in repairing an old nesta new entrance is sometimes made in the opposite end.It is evident that the nests of these tvs^o regions differ markedly inthe type of materials used. The Los Angeles County nests are builtentirely of herbaceous stems and grasses, some of them green in theearly part of the year. Because of the impermanence of this mate-rial, and possibly also the greater humidity, a nest will be in a stateof collapse and disintegration by the end of one year. This is no faultof the workmanship, for a recently constructed nest was found toremain quite dry inside after a 2-inch rain. New nests are invaria-bly built in spring or summer for the raising of the broad, the oldones serving as roosts. The greatest nest-building activity occurs inSeptember and October, as the nests that have gone through the pre-vious winter's rains must be replaced, and even some of those builtfor the current year's broods are likely to be no longer habitable.Apparently the first to discover the winter use of the nests wasA. W. Anthony (1891), who thus describes his observations in south-western New Mexico
:
As these nests were usually seen in groups of from four or five to a dozen,frequently six or seven being seen in one mesquite bush, the first impressionobtained was that the birds nested in colonies. As the season advanced, how-ever, and the collections of nests were found to be used by but a single or atmost two pairs of birds, a question of what the rest of the nests were for, fre-quently presented itself. It was very evident from even a casual examinationthat nearly or all the nests had been built at about the same time, and fromtheir uniform fresh and unbroken appearance I concluded that they could nothave been subjected to the driving stoi'ms that sweep that country from Octoberuntil April.It was not until the winter of 1889, however, that a possible explanation pre-sented itself. On October 24 of that year, while hunting antelope near theMexican boundary, I availed myself of the protection of a small thicket of mes-quite scrub to observe the movements of a herd of game on the plain beyond.I had scarcely concealed myself when I saw flying toward me a cactus wren,with its mouth full of dry grass. Alighting in a bush near by it immediatelyentered a nest within 30 feet of me, and after a moment reappeared withoutthe grass and started for another load. An examination showed that the grasshad been used as a lining and to further thicken the walls. The long horizontaltunnel-like opening also gave evidence of having been lengthened. Five or sixother nests within a radius of 50 feet all showed equal evidence of having beenrefitted and strengthened. Here at last was a possible clew to the many emptynests seen during the summer, and, hoping to gather further information, thelocality was frequently visited until December 16. The work of rebuilding theold nests continued during pleasant weather until about the first of December,By this time all of the nests of the vicinity were so thoroughly repaired thatthey had every appearance of new nests. At no time was there more thanone bird to be seen. I think, however, that a pair were interested in the im-provements, as the notes of a second wren were heard at no great distance.During storms or cold windy w^eather I frequently found cactus wrens in thevery near vicinity of these and other nests, and while I never succeeded in
224 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
catchiiij,' tlKun In the nt^sts I am confident that they were made use of at suchtimes as shelters from the storm and probably also as roosting places. It wouldalso appear that several of the nests were repaired and used during the winterby the same pair of wrens.Upon coming to the Pacific Coast I was immediately impressed with the differ-ence in the nesting habits of the species as seen in Soufheru and Lower California,and in the higher regions of New Mexico and Arizona. I am iinfortunately with-out a series of measurements of the nests of the two regions, but am safe in sayingthat the bird of the coast region builds a smaller nest, especially noticeable in itsnmch shorter covered opening, which in fine specimens from the interior (NewMexico and Arizona) frequently measures from twelve to fourteen inches in lengthand is supported by being built along a horizontal branch of cholla cactus ortJiorny bush. California nests are seldom or never, as far as my experience goes,found in colonies. Two or more nests are sometimes seen in the same thicket ofcactus, but in such case each nest is used by a pair of birds, there being no supple-mentary nests to be used as lodging-houses, as would appear to be the case in theinterior, nor have I any evidence of the nests in mild coast region being rebuilt foruse in winter.Tlie last sentence illustrates the danger that lies in the drawing ofnegative conclusions, even by the most competent observers. Certainlythose inferences are not true in all southwestern California, and in viewof the general use of nests as night roosts by other species of this genus,even in tropical latitudes, as described by Alexander F. Skutch (1940)
,
it seems unlikely that there would be local deviations from this habit.The more scattered distribution of the California nests may be in part,at least, a matter of suitable sites.In constructing the framework of the nest, the bottom is first laid,then the vaulted upper part is fashioned, and finally the entrancetunnel is added. It is often impossible to determine exactly whichdirection the entrance will face until the exterior of the nest is almostfinished, as the tunnel may be either straight or rather sharply curvedto one side. This tunnel, whose inner end is about even with the ceilingof the nesting cavity, may be nearly horizontal, but usually it slopesmore or less steeply down into the interior of the nest. In the many-branched "chollas" the tunnels are often so cleverly placed that thebranches form an encircling support and a convenient doorstep. Thebuilding proceeds rapidly and would be completed in a short time wereit not that the work is conducted rather spasmodically, with longintervals of apparent neglect. The lining of the nest is a more tediousprocess and doubtless entails extended search for suitable materials, ofwhich feathers seem to be most favored, though kapok or cotton will beused if found. Many abortive attempts at nest-building are made, thenests being abandoned at various stages of construction when the birdsapparently decide to choose another location.Despite the accessibility of most cactus wrens' nests, a study of theirfamily affairs is not easy. The contents of the nest are seldom visiblethrough the entrance tunnel, which is directed toward the upper partof the nesting cavity and is often curved or bent at a right angle, while
NORTHERN CACTUS WREN 225the walls are so thick and the material so tightly matted together thatit would be difficult to make an opening into the nesting chamber with-out considerable damage to the nest. The cavity is also usually moreor less filled with loose feathers. Curiosity as to the contents of cactuswrens' nests should be tempered by due caution, as I have been informedthat one such investigation unfortunately resulted in the loss of anintruder's eye as the startled bird darted suddenly through its onlymeans of exit.In spring, nesting usually begins in March or April, according to theseason. If the first brood is fledged successfully, in California a newnest is built and a second brood brought off in June or thereabouts.According to Mr. Scott (1888a), in Pinal and adjacent counties ofsouthern Arizona, the cactus wrens raise "at least two and sometimesthree broods. * * * The first eggs are laid in the Catalina regionas early as March 20, and the broods vary from three to five in number."
^P'^*.?[Author's note : The usual set for the northern cactus wrenconsists of four or five eggs, most commonly four ; but as few as threemay constitute a full set, and as many as six or even seven have beenfound in a nest. The eggs are mostly ovate in shape, some beingslightly elongated or shortened. They are somewhat glossy. Theground color varies from "salmon color" or "salmon-buff" to "seashellpink," pinkish white, or rarely to nearly pure white. Usually the eggis more or less evenly covered with fine dots or very small spots ofreddish browns, "rufous" to "ferruginous," sometimes nearly conceal-ing the ground color; sometimes the markings are concentrated in aring about the larger end. Rarely an egg seems nearly immaculate,and still more rarely an egg with a white ground is quite heavilyspotted or blotched with the above browns. The measurements of 50eggs in the United States National Museum average 23.6 by 17.0millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 26.4 by15.2, 24.9 by 19.1, and 19.8 by 13.2 millimeters.]Young.?Because of the difficulty of discovering exactly what tran-spires in the dark, feather-filled recesses of the nest, little informationis available as to the exact length of the incubation and fledgingperiods. Both parents seem to share the nesting duties equally,bringing insects and worms of various kinds to the young at frequentintervals. Mrs. N. Edward Ayer (1937) gives the following inter-esting account of the activities and difficulties of a family of cactuswrens which occupied a nest in a rather unusual situation at Pomona,Calif.:Toward the end of April 1937, a pair of Cactus Wrens built and occupied anest on a ledge under the corner of our tiled roof. On May 9th, a brolien eggshell, creamy pink spotted with cinnamon, was found beneath the nest. Forthe next 3 weeks the parents were kept busy feeding four hungry mouths, breadcrumbs from n nearby feeding station forming an important part of their diet.On the morning of May 29th, when we came down to breakfast, a loud chat-
226 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtering was heard, and we saw both parents and the four youug on a nearbysycamore. One baby was caught and banded, but unfortunately 2 days later,we found it dead * * *.Every night between 6 : 30 and 7, the parents led the young back to their nestfor the night, and the entire proceeding, accompanied by much scolding andfussing, was a most ludicrous and lengthy performance. Not until June 11th,however, did we discover the real difHculty, which lay in the 4-inch overhangof the tile. In order to enter the nest, unless the bird could fly straight in,which the babies evidently could not?it must be reached from the roof tilewhich formed a hood over the nest, and this necessitated a kind of flying sortiewith a quick right-about-face, which the youngsters could not easily accomplish.On June 11th, then, we saw the little family start to retire. They were at theopposite end of the house from their nest when first observed. After a pro-longed in.spection of a nest over the garage which the parents had built, priorto the one eventually occupied, the I'amily started for home, hopping in statelyprocession across the tiled roof, single file and very sedately. Then afterencouraging clucks from the parents, baby number one negotiated the difficultjump to the nest. Not so the second baby?he essayed it three times, missingthe hole each time, and being obliged to cling to the house, woodpecker fashion.The fourth time, he caught a long piece of string which dangled from the nestand swung back and forth until one of his parents flew under him, and hecrawled to safety over her body, just as the first baby, weary of his lonesomesojourn in the nest, flew out in the world again ! And so it went on, ad infinitum.We had several times previously seen the parent bird clinging to the side ofthe ledge and the babies crawling in over her, but did not realize the significanceof this act until this night. The string, too, had given us much concern lest thebabies become entangled in it, but now we wondered if it could have beendesignedly placed there?like a rope ladder.Plumages.?[Author's note : The young cactus wren in juvenalplumage is similar to the adult, but the crown is of a duller, darkerbrown, the light markings of the upper parts are pale brownish buff orrusty white, instead of white, those on the wings being pinkish buff,and the black spots on the throat and chest are smaller and fainter,the throat sometimes almost immaculate; all the markings are lesssharply defined.The postjuvenal molt, which in some individuals is not finished untilSeptember, apparently involves everything but the wings. This pro-duces a first winter plumage that is practically adult, with the lightstreaks on the back whiter and broader, and the flanks and posteriorunder parts bright "cinnamon" or "ochraceous-buff," instead of rustywhite.Adults have a complete postnuptial molt in August and September.]Wlien the young cactus wren emerges from the nest, its coloration issimilar, though somewhat less sharply defined, to that of the adultexcept for the absence of the black markings on the throat, which isplain whitish or lightly flecked with darker. The full adult plumageis attained rather suddenly in the early fall, about September.It has been conjectured by some that the varying amounts of blackon the throats of individual cactus wrens might be related to the age
NORTHERN CACTUS WREN 227
of the birds. This, however, is not true, as the throat patches assumedby the birds in their first autumn are likely to show nearly the maximumdegree of blackness; whereas in individuals having more than theusual amount of white on the throat, this character persists from yearto year.Food.?Prot. F. E. L. Beal (1907) has reported on the contents of41 stomachs of cactus wrens "taken in the region from Los Angeles toSan Bernardino, and from July to January, inclusive. They con-tained about 83 percent of animal matter to 17 of vegetable." Beetlesand Hymenoptera ("the latter ants and wasps") each made up about27 percent of the total, 10 percent of the former being weevils. Grass-hoppers constituted 15 percent, Lepidoptera 5 percent, and bugs(Hemiptera) 5 percent, including black scale (Saissetia) in six stom-achs. The percentage of spiders was lower than in other wrens. "Afew of the long bones of a tree frog were found in 1 stomach."The proportion of vegetable food was found to be larger than inother wrens : 13 percent was made up of fruit pulp, which in all caseswhere identification was possible consisted of wild species, includingcactus {Ojmntia), elderberry {Sanibucus) ^ and cascara {Rhamnus).The 4 percent of seeds consisted of Rhiis^ filaree (Ei^odin/m) , andAmsinchia. Summarizing the cactus wren's diet. Prof. Beal says that
"it contains but little that is useful to man, while the great bulk ismade up of elements that are, or would be, harmful if present oncultivated lands."Supplementing the mention of tree-frog bones. Dr. Tracy I. Storer(1920) reports taking a cactus wren near Mojave, Calif., that hadswallowed a lizard about 2 inches in length. Aside from the ediblekinds of cactus fruit, all cultivated fruits seem to be ignored. Thebirds do, however, greatly enjoy young sweet corn if the husks arestripped down to give them access to the grains. One will also oc-casionally visit a feeding-table for bread crumbs, but these are notattractive enough to them to establish a regular habit where insectsare plentiful. The animal portion of the food appears to be obtainedpredominantly from the ground, among fallen leaves and other debris.Behavior.?Mr. Dawson (1923) says that the cactus wren "is themost wary and secretive of the Troglodytine race." However, thosethat nest near human habitations soon forget their shyness and allowas close an approach as most of our dooryard birds. On one occasionI found that a pair living some distance away from any evidencesof civilization refused to return to their nest and feed their youngwhile a camera remained near; but those that nest near buildingsshow no such fear and will even make the camera or its tripod away-station on their trips to and from the nest.The demeanor of the cactus wren is that of a creature which findsample interest and enjoyment in life; especially is this true of the
228 BULLETIN 196, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMimmature individuals. The birds of the summer brood remaintogether for several weeks after leaving the nest, and in little troopsof three or four they come fearlessly about houses and perform allmanner of clownish antics and acrobatics, all to the accompanimentof a rollicking chatter. I have seen one start from the seat of awicker chair, run nimbly up the back and over the top, and hanghead downward on the other side; often they race back and forthalong the ridge of a building with exultant squawks, perhaps cling-ing to the edge of the roof and twisting their necks to peer under-neath. Their curiosity is insatiable ; everything must be climbed over,all packages, receptacles, cracks, and crannies looked into and any-thing inside pulled out if possible. Though the adults lose someof the frivolity, the attitude of good humor seems to remain, andquarrels are few. The only actual battle I recall seeing resulted whenone immature bird attempted to bring material to a nest being builtby another.Both the cactus wren's food and its hunting grounds are much thesame as those of the thrashers, but its manner of foraging is strik-ingly different from the strenuous methods of the latter. The cactuswren approaches a leaf or other movable object, inserts its bill care-fully under one side, and raises it up, meanwhile peering beneath inreadiness to seize any small creature thus revealed. The bird runsrather swiftly but usually flies if going any considerable distance.Its flights are ordinarily comparatively short, direct, and close tothe ground.Writing of the winter birds of Palm Springs, on the westernedge of the Colorado Desert, where the cacti, though abundant, arenot of large stature. Dr. Grinnell (1904) includes the following noteon the cactus wren : "Fairly common out on the desert ; and also, assurprised me when I first found them, in Palm Canyon. In the latterlocality they made themselves at home among the drooping deadleaves beneath the green heads of the lofty palms. The birds couldbe plainly heard rattling about inside, but were difficult to drive out.Doubtless such palm-leaf bowers afforded insect food in plenty, aswell as a well-protected retreat."Alexander F. Skutch (1935, 1940) has reported the communalroosting of the banded cactus wren {Heleodytes zonatus) and thehooded cactus wren {H. capistratus) in Central America, as many as11 of the former having been found sleeping together in one nest.This habit does not appear to be shared by our northern species,except when the members of a recently fledged brood return at nightto the nest in which they were hatched. That one or both of theparents sometimes keep them company might be inferred from thepreviously quoted account by Mrs. Ayer, though the quarters mustbe somewhat cramped.
NORTHERN CACTUS WREN 229However, the young birds lose little time in starting to build indi-vidual roosting places of their own, if the available supply is insuffi-cient. A few resort to makeshift devices, one of them attempting, withrather indifferent success, to use as a foundation an abandoned nestof the hooded oriole among the leaves of a dracaena tree. Another,also believed to be immature, was reported by A. H. Anderson (1934b)at Tucson, Ariz., to have appropriated a verdin's nest, notwithstandingits inadequate size. Some of these roosting nests, presumably builtby young birds, have little if any entrance tunnel, the entire interiorbeing clearly visible. Aside from the recently fledged broods, I havenever flushed more than one bird from a nest; on the other hand, incoastal California, where the nests deteriorate rapidly, nearly everyhabitable nest will contain an occupant after sunset, as indicated by thetip of a tail projecting out into the entrance tunnel.Occasionally a cactus wren will drink from a birdbath, but in gen-eral they seem to have little need or desire for water, other than themoisture contained in the insects and cactus fruit of their ordinarydiet. Rarely, one of the wrens attempts a bath, but after many timidapproaches it usually succeeds only in wetting the feathers of thebreast. I have never seen them roll in the dust, after the manner ofsome of the smaller wrens.Voice.?The voice of the cactus wren has rather a deep, throatyquality, sometimes becoming almost a croak. The bird uses a greatdiversity of notes, some of them grating or ratchetlike, varied with jay-like squawks and occasional cries suggesting the plaintive demandsof young birds. While foraging, a softer clucking or croaking notemay be given at intervals, though the birds are often silent for longperiods while so engaged.Many of the ornithological handbooks refer to the cactus wren'senthusiasm as a songster. Mrs. Irene G. Wheelock (1904), for exam-ple, says : "He sings constantly as well as sweetly." Others speak ofthe typical wrenlike quality of the song. Since this is decidedly atvariance with the present writer's observations in southern California,there must be differences in the singing habits of the species in variousparts of its range. In Los Angeles County the cactus wren's songis not often heard, and, while it may somewhat resemble in form thesongs of the smaller wrens, it can hardly be characterized as melodious.In this locality a much more frequent expression, which perhaps alsopartakes of the nature of a song, is the rapid repetition of a singlestaccato note. The quality of this note varies, but never in the sameseries. This type of call is usually delivered from the top of a tree,a building, or a pole, sometimes antiphonally by a pair of birds on thetops of different bushes'. The most tuneful utterance that I have everheard from these cactus wrens was a warbling song given by an imma-7580G6?48 16
230 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
tiire bird, a song so soft that it could have been heard only within adistance of a few feet.Noisy and unmusical though the California representative of thespecies may be, its cries are never shrill or mournful but convey a sug-gestion of rollicking good humor, rather pleasing than otherwise.Field marks,?The cactus wren is easily distinguished from anyother North American wren by its much greater size, as well as by thefact that it never carries' its tail in the tilted position so familiar inthe smaller species. The only bird with which it might be confused,by reason of size, general appearance, and arid habitat, is the sagethrasher, from which it differs, among other respects, in its longerbill and white-streaked back. When flushed, its most conspicuousfeature is the white-banded tail, which is widely extended in flight.Enemies.?In thickly populated districts the chief hazard to thecactus wren undoubtedly lies in the fact that its conspicuous, conveni-ently located nests offer an irresistible challenge to vandals. This isbut one of the many instances in which defenses that cope successfullywith natural enemies prove but traps and delusions when the humanelement enters. Fortunately, the greater part of the cactus wren'sdomain presents' little allurement to colonists, so the species may wellprosper for many years to come.In other respects, the cactus wren's nesting habits must be of gi'eatadvantage. In cholla cacti the viciously sharp, barbed spines, to whichthe birds themselves seem utterly oblivious, must very effectually barthe way to climbing predators, while the covering of the nest shieldsit contents from flying enemies, as well as providing shelter from theelements. In leafy bushes or trees, the nests are placed at the ends ofthe branches in the outer foliage, thus again making them almostinaccessible to climbers. These precautions, of course, will not availagainst the California jay, and the complete disappearance of two setsof eggs in my own yard, without damage to the nests, could be ascribedonly to that culprit.Winter.?Though not truly migratory, cactus wrens may shift aboutsomewhat when not engaged in nesting duties. In writing of thisspecies in southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico, H. W.Henshaw (1875) reported that "in the fall, the thickets borderingthe streams are frequently resorted to by them." Perhaps such movesinto denser cover have contributed to the general impression that thewrens are less common in winter. They also seem less vociferous atthis time of year and hence more likely to be overlooked. Near LosAngeles, the birds are often absent from their breeding grounds inwinter for days or weeks at a time, but they reappear often enoughto show that they have performed no actual migration.The paired birds seem to remain together through winter, and, asidefrom pursuits, no courtship demonstrations have been noted.
BRYANT'S CACTUS WREN 231DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southwestern United States to central Mexico; nonmi-gratory.The cactus wren is found north to southern California (Kernvilleand Coso) ; southern Nevada (Vegas Valley and Sheep Mountains)
;
southwestern Utah (Beaverdam Mountains and Toquerville) ; south-ern New Mexico (Carlisle, Silver City, and the mountains near En-gle) ; and southern Texas (San Angelo, San Antonio, and Runge).East to central Texas (Runge and Brownsville) ; Tamaulipas (Jau-mave) ; and Yucatan (Progreso and Rio Lagartos). South to Yuca-tan (Progreso and Rio Lagartos) ; Mexico (Valley of Mexico) ; Jalisco(Guadalajara) ; and Baja California (San Jose del Cabo). West toBaja California (San Jose del Cabo, San Quintin, and San Telmo) ;and southern California (Santa Paula, Tejon Pass, and Kernville).The above outline is for the species as a whole, which has been dividedinto four subspecies or geographic races within our limits ; other racesoccur in Mexico. The northern cactus wren {H. h. couesi) occupiesthe entire range within the United States and the northern part of thenorthern States of Mexico; Bryant's cactus wren {H. h. hryanti) isfound on the west coast of Baja California from San Telmo southto Santa Catarina Landing; the San Ignacio cactus wren {H. b. purus)is found in central Baja California from about latitude 29? to latitude25?; the San Lucas cactus wren {H. h. a-fflnis) is found in southernBaja California.Egg dates.?Arizona : 82 records, March 10 to August 6 ; 40 records,April 21 to May 25, indicating the height of the season.California : 160 records, March 2 to July 5 ; 85 records, March 20to April 22.Lower California : 48 records, March 17 to August 18 ; 27 records,April 14 to May 15.Texas: 25 records, March 12 to July 15; 14 records, April 8 toMay 14. HELEODYTES BRUNNEICAPILLUS BRYANTI AnthonyBRYANT'S CACTUS WRENHABITSAs mentioned under the northern race, H. b. couesi, there has beensome confusion in the past as to the recognizable races of this species.In his study of the cactus wrens of the United States Dr. Edgar A.Mearns (1902b) proposed the recognition of three subspecies withinour borders and designated the range of this race, bryanti, as includ-
232 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMing southern California west of the Coast Range. Harry S. Swarth(1904a) disagreed with this view and pubhshed the results of hisstudy, which indicate that only one subspecies, H. 1). coiiesi, is foundnorth of the Mexican boundary, which seems to be the generallyaccepted view today.In naming this race, Mr. Anthony (1894) gives its subspecificcharacters as "differing from affinis in very much heavier spotting oflower parts, the black predominating, in extreme specimens, on thethroat and upper breast, and in its perfectly barred tail and slightwash of rufous on belly and flanks; from hrunneicapillus by heavierspotting, especially on sides and belly, in having intermediate rec-trices more or less perfectly barred, and in much less rusty wash onlower parts."The above description as to the barring of the tail seems to be a bitconfusing, for Mr. Anthony says that "as a rule hryanti exhibits afully barred tail as in affiiiis.'''' For a more detailed study of the sub-ject, which seems beyond the scope of this Bulletin, the reader isreferred to the three papers mentioned above, as well as B-idgway's(1904) treatment of the group.So far as I can learn, the habits of Bryant's cactus wren do not differmaterially from those of the species elsewhere. Mr. Anthony (1895b)has this to say about this subspecies as observed near San Fernando,Baja California
:
Not uncommon throughout the region but everywhere noticeable for its ex-treme shyness. The normal note of the Cactus Wren is quite harsh and un-musical, consisting of a series of notes rapidly uttered in a monotone, but at themine I once heard one give voice to a song exactly intermediate between thenormal, discordant notes of this species and the incomparable song of the CaiionWren. The full, rich cadence and clear tones of Catherpes was very pronouncedbut not more so than the characteristic gou-goii-you and deeper tones of Ilcleo-dytes. I was not near enough to secure the bird and before I could get withinrange it flew further up the mountain where it several times repeated the songthat first attracted me.There are two sets of three eggs each in the Thayer collectionin Cambridge. Any of these eggs could be matched by different typesof eggs of the northern cactus wren. In one set the eggs have a palepinkish ground-color and are marked with faint dots. In the otherset the ground-color is white and the eggs are marked with distinct,rather large spots and small blotches of pale reddish brown or
"cinnamon."Mr. Bancroft (1930) says that the measurements of a series of 70eggs average 24.9 by 17.1 millimeters. Among the six eggs in Cam-bridge, the eggs showing the four extremes measure 27.2 by 16.7, 24.4by 17.3, and 23.7 by 17.0 millimeters.
SAN LUCAS CACTUS WREN 233HELEODYTES BRUNNEICAPILLUS AFFINIS (Xantiis)SAN LUCAS CACTUS WRENHABITSAlthough this wren was originally described from the Cape regionof Baja California, its range is now extended northward over morethan half of the peninsula, to about latitude 29? ; it apparently inter-grades with hryanti somewhere south of San Fernando.Kidgway (1904) gives the best description of it as follows: "Mostlike n. h. 'bryanti but much paler, with under parts less heavily andmore sparsely marked with black; color of pileum and hindneck morereddish brown (mummy brown to chestnut-brown), the feathers oftenwith paler terminal small spots or streaks; all the rectrices, exceptmiddle pair, with distinct white bars on both webs; under parts morepurely white (distinctly tinged with buff posteriorly only in freshautumnal plumage), the black markings on lower parts of bodybroadly guttate, those on throat and chest but little larger (neverlarge and confluent as is often the case in other subspecies), but ofdifferent (irregular and variable) form."William Brewster (1902) says of its haunts: "In the Cape Kegionproper the St. Lucas Cactus Wren is everywhere a common residentexcepting on the higher mountains, where it appears to be whollywanting. Its favorite haunts are the arid, cactus-grown plains nearthe coast and the almost equally barren and waterless foot-hills, butat San Jose del Cabo Mr. Frazar found it abundant in gardens andamong shrubbery near or even directly over water."Grilling Bancroft (1930) says of its distribution in the central por-tion of the peninsula: "These wrens, while common, are not nearlyso abundant as experience elsewhere would lead one to expect. It isnot easy to define their range because, in exceptional cases, they breedamong the palms of the oases as well as on the lava mesas. But ingeneral they limit themselves to areas of intermediate fertility, shun-ning alike heavy undergrowth and associations of scant vegetation.That leaves them the less rocky valley floors and most of the streambeds as well as the narrowing canons and the lateral branches runninginto the hills. The birds are appreciably more plentiful at the higheraltitudes."Nesting.?The same observer says of the nesting habits
:
In their choice of nesting sites the Cactus Wrens indulge in a wide I'ange ofindividual preference. The most popular selection is the upper part of a chollaor the center of a palo verde, but nests are not at all unusual in any low cactus,in mesquite or other trees, in heavy mistletoe, in the crotches of sahuaros, orwithin woodpecker holes. A formidable list could be made of unusual locations.There is, with the exception of the lining, a marked uniformity in the constructionof the nests. Long fine grass stems are used as the basic material. These arewoven into gourd shaped structures fifteen to eighteen inches long with the
234 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
nesting cavity inside. Entrance is effected through a five-inch tunnel. Thelining is almost always profuse and is usually of the feathers of some largerbird. Sometimes it is of plant down and in one nest nothing was used but nativecotton.There are three nests and nine eggs of this wren in the Thayer col-lection in Cambridge, all collected in the Cape region, on May 1, Au-gust 3, and August 18. The nests are substantially built as describedabove, but one is made externally of dry grasses, dry leaves, fine twigs,rootlets, and lichens; it is lined with very fine grasses. The secondone is similar. The third is made chiefly of dry grass stems, mixedwith a lot of poultry feathers and a few pieces of rags, string, andcotton ; it is profusely lined with feathers and white hairs ; the feathersstick out all over it; evidently the wrens had secured most of theirmaterial from some farmyard.Eggs.?Evidently the San Lucas cactus wren seldom lays morethan 3 eggs, and often fewer. The three sets referred to above consist of3 eggs each. Mr. Bancroft (1930) states that "the number of eggslaid is 2. Of the many sets examined I found but one that contained3 eggs. Incubated singles were unusual rather than rare. The layingseason begins about April 25, in a desultory way, and is not underfull head until past the middle of May." J. Stuart Rowley (1935)says that "of some 35 nests examined, none contained more than 3eggs or young, with the majority holding two."The eggs probably show all the variations to be seen in the eggs ofother races of the species. The 9 eggs referred to above vary fromovate to ellii^tical-ovate and are somewhat glossy ; they are mostly ofthe lighter types of coloration. The measurements of 40 eggs in theUnited States National Museum average 23.7 by 17.0 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 25.9 by 17.8, 19.8 by 18.3, and23.4 by 15.8 millimeters.Plumages.?Mr. Brewster (1902) writes:Young in juvenal plumage differ from old birds in breeding plumage only inhaving the crown of a darker, duller brown (almost slaty brown In some speci-mens) ; the light markings of the back rusty white and broader, on many of thefeathers taking the form of deltoid spots; the light markings of the wings, in-cluding those of the outer primaries (but not the tail), strongly rusty; thespotting of the under parts finer and somewhat fainter.Young (and perhaps old birds also) in autumn differ from spring adults andyoung in juvenal plumage in having the light streaks of the back broader andwhiter ; the flanks, abdomen, anal region, and crissum bright cinnamon orochraceous buff, instead of rusty white.HELEODYTES BRUNNEICAPILLUS PURUS van RossemSAN IGNACIO CACTUS WRENIn describing this subspecies, Mr. van Rossem (1930) says that it
"differs from all of the known races of Heleodytes hrunneica'piUus inpossessing, when in relatively unworn plumage, pure black and white
LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN 235
underparts with only very rarely the slightest traces of brown or biiffyon the flanks. Differs from Heleodytes hrunneica'pillus a^finis Xantusof the Cape region in lacking the strong buffy suffusion on the under-parts and in having decidedly grayer (less reddish) upperparts.Differs from Heleodytes hrmineicapillus hryanti Anthony of the SanPedro Martir District in less buffy underparts, broader dorsal streak-ing and from both afjlnis and hryanti in slightly smaller general sizeand in decidedly smaller bill."The range he gives as "Middle portion of the peninsula of LowerCalifornia, Mexico, from Dolores Bay (25?05' N.) north to Mesquital(28?30' N.) and Punta Prieta (28?56' N.) . Specimens from the twolatter localities are variously mediate toward hryantVTELMATODYTES PALUSTRIS PALUSTRIS (Wilson)LONG-BILLED MARSH WRENPlate 43HABITSThe name given by Wilson for this species is now restricted to thelong-billed marsh wrens inhabiting a rather limited breeding rangeon the Atlantic slope from Rhode Island to Virginia. Outram Bangs(1902) has shown that the wrens from this region have the extensivelywhite lower surface, as so clearly depicted in Wilson's plate ; and he hasgiven a new name to the wrens of the interior of New England andthe Middle West.Julian G. Griggs spent a large portion of the summer of 1937 onJamestown Island in the James Eiver, Va., studying the habits of thiswren in some detail. He has kindly sent me his extensive unpublishedmanuscript, giving the results of his observations, with the privilege ofquoting from it. On this island, "about 750 or nearly one-half of theisland's 1,G00 acres are marshland, which occupies much of the southernpart of the island. Five narrow, parallel ridges of wooded land extendlike so many fingers into the marshy area where this study was made.A narrow, branching, brackish, tidal creek extends up into the morass.Dominants in the marsh are Peltandra and marsh grass. The latterdominates creek banks and other slightly raised portions, while theformer, because of its greater preference for water, occupies the lowerareas of the marsh. Here and there among the grass are groups andindividuals of marsh alder, groundsel-tree, knotweed, Kosteletzhyavirginica, rosemallow, and swamp milkweed. Cattails and longbillsare usually associated together, but this is not the case at Jamestown."In other portions of the range of this subspecies, this long-billedmarsh wren does, occasionally at least, nest in the narrowleaf cattails{Typha augustifolia) , notably in coastal Connecticut and coastal Vir-ginia. Chreswell J. Hunt (1904) , however, gives a somewhat different
236 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMimpression of the haunts of this wren ; his studies were "made along thetidewater creeks which empty into the Delaware River near Philadel-phia. These creeks have high and wooded banks on one side, while onthe other side for the most part lie low stretches of alder swamps,covered during the suromer with a rank growth of spatter-dock, cala-mus, wild rice, and pickerel-weed, with here and there a clump of rose-mallow or a gorgeous cardinal flower. It is here that countless num-bers of these little birds find a congenial summer home."Aretas A. Saunders writes to me : "Here in Connecticut are manybits of cattail marsh. Some contain both broad and narrow-leavedcattail, and marsh wrens. Others contain only broad-leaved cattail andno marsh wrens. They will nest where there are rushes {Scirpus) orreeds {Phragmites)
^
Nesting.?The nests studied by Mr. Griggs were mainly in the marsh-grass habitat, and within this area the wren builds its nest in variousplants. "The only condition necessary is that there be a place of an-chorage 15 or more inches above ground. As a consequence of this,marsh alder and groundsel trees are extensively used for nesting sites.A few nests were found in Hibiscus^ and one in some poison ivy, whichhappened to grow at the right angle. In a situation where alder is com-mon, most nests are made in its branches ; likewise, where marsh grass(Spartina) is thick a majority of nests are built among its stems. Inthe locality examined a majority of wren nests were fairly close to thewater, because higher ground there afforded the right habitat. In aslough just north of the island, nests were found over 150 yards fromthe nearest water."The average height above ground of 21 nests measured early inJune was 33 inches, one was only 15 inches, and two were 72 and 78inches up in groundsel-trees {Baccharls) . None of the nests in themarsh grass, even later in the season when it averaged 8 feet high,were over 51/2 feet above ground ; but one was recorded in a groundsel-tree that was 9 feet up. The usual number of dummy nests per femalevaried from two to four, rather fewer than reported for some othersubspecies.Mr. Hunt (1904) says that?along the Pensaukeu Creek each patch of calamus has its pair of Wrens, andeach pair build, on an average four nests. In this locality the globular nestsare generally built among the calamus stalks or in the crotch of an alder orelder bush. A visit to these swamps, on May 30, 1904, shovped each pair ofbirds to have three nests almost completed, while the foundation for a fourthwas in most cases already started. They seem to work on all of them at once.I watched a Wren with a piece of building material in his bill. First he carriedit to one nest and started to stick it into that, then he flew away with it toanother nest and finally he inserted it into the walls of the third, evei*y littlewhile stopping to sing a snatch of his merry song.Robert Ridgway (1889) says of the nests that he observed in the
LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN 237marshes of the Potomac River, near Washington, D. C. : "Althoughusually fastening the nest to upright sedge?or reed-stalks, the writerhas found several that were built in small willow trees, at heightsvarying from 6 to 15 feet above high tide." Evidently this long-billed marsh wren often differs from other races of the species else-where, in its choice of nesting sites.The long-billed marsh wren must be added to the long list of birdsthat have been known to use pieces of snakeskin in their nests, forJosiah H. Clark (1899) found a nest near Rutherford, N. J., that was
"lined with a cast-off snake skin, which was about a foot long."Eggs.?This subspecies seems to lay fewer eggs, on the average, thando some other races. Mr. Griggs found that the average for 23clutches was 4.3. Two nests had 3 eggs, 12 had 4, and 9 had 5 eggs.I cannot see that there is any difference in the appearance of theeggs from those of the species elsewhere. The measurements of 40eggs average 16.0 by 12.3 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 17.3 by 13.2, 14.2 by 11.7, and 15.2 by 11.2 milli-meters. These eggs are all in the United States National Museum.Having included so much in the life history of the prairie marshwren, it seems unnecessary to add much more here, as the generalhabits of these two races are very much alike. Mr. Hunt (1904) hasthis to say about the midnight song of the long-billed marsh wren:
"At all hours of the night the Marsh Wren's notes may be heard ring-ing across the marsh. Drifting with the tide, in an open boat, amongthese swamps I have heard this night song at its best. There is apleasant surprise in store for the bird-lover who has missed it. Thisnight song is no doubt the same as that sung in the daylight but thenight gives to it a certain charm. One must hear it mingled with thequivering call of a Screech Owl and the 'quawk, quawk' of NightHerons to fully appreciate it."Mr. Griggs adds the following items of interest : "About two-thirdsof the nests studied were destroyed between the time of the laying ofthe first egg and the time at which the young were ready to fly. Ina very few cases the nests were damaged somewhat, or a hole was tornin the bottom, but in the great majority eggs and young disappearedwithout the nest being damaged. About a dozen small rodents werediscovered in Jamestown Island nests. One, caught inside a dummynest, proved to be a rice rat {Oryzomys palitstris palustris). Mr.Crook, of Williamsburg, found fragments of eggs and an adult bird,which had been eaten by some small mammal that jumped into thewater at his approach. Only a few scattered feathers, the skull, leg,and wing bones of the parent bird remained."Only about six watersnakes and about the same number of black-snakes were seen in the marsh. "At no time was a snake seen sus-piciously close to a wren nest. One blacksnake, in a bayberry bush
238 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMabout 15 feet from a nest, was watched for some time. His movementswere accompanied by audible rustlings, but the wren never noticedhim."Wind and rain caused considerable damage to several nests, whichthe wrens deserted. "Nests in Iva or Baccharis were often insecurelyattached. One such hung by two strands of grass for days. Youngwrens were in it at the time and, although every slight breeze caused itto swing from side to side, the parent bird seemed oblivious to theprecariousness of the situation."He says that territorial boundaries were very flexible. "I haveseen males fly back and forth between dummy nests spread out over adistance of a hundred yards or more. Seldom was one wren seenchasing another. At no time was a wren noticed flying after a birdof another species."Wayne (1910) says that, in South Carolina, "this form is an abun-dant autumn, winter, and late spring visitant. My earliest record isSeptember 4, 1895, and the latest May 17, 1897. During the migra-tions it is most abundant in October and April, when it is commonlyfound on the salt marshes. In winter, however, the birds prefer thefreshwater marshes on the rice plantations, and I have seen more thana hundred individuals in the course of a few hours in such situations."DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southern Canada to central Mexico.Breeding range.?The long-billed marsh wren breeds north tosouthern British Columbia (Chilliwack, Lac la Hache, and Spring-house) ; northern Alberta (Peace Eiver Landing and the AthabaskaDelta) ; southern Saskatchewan (Prince Albert and Indian Head)
;
southern Manitoba (Lake St. Martin, Winnipeg, and probably Chema-wawin) ; southern Ontario (Lake Nipissing and Ottawa) ; southernQuebec (Blue Sea Lake and Montreal) ; and New Brunswick (prob-ably Woodstock and Midgic). East to New Brunswick (probablyMidgic) ; and south through all the Atlantic Coast States to southernFlorida (Eldred). South to southern Florida (Eldred and Char-lotte Harbor) ; the Gulf coast to southeastern Texas (Port Arthurand Cove) ; southern Illinois (Horseshoe Lake) ; southern Missouri(Marionville) ; southern Kansas (Wichita) ; southern Colorado (Al-kali Lakes and Saguache) ; central Utah (Marysvale) ; centralNevada (Ruby Lake and Carson) ; southwestern Arizona (Yuma) ;and southern California (Calipatria and Escondido). From NorthCarolina to Texas the species is confined almost entirely to the coastalmarshes.Winter range.?The long-billed marsh wren occasionally winters
LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN 239almost as far north as it breeds. The regular winter range is discon-tinuous. In the west it winters north to southwestern British Colum-bia (Vancouver and the Okanagan Valley) . East to southern BritishColumbia (Okanagan Valley) ; southeastern Washington (WallaWalla) ; eastern Oregon (Malheur Lake) ; central Utah (Bear KiverMarshes and St. George) ; southern Nevada (Searchlight) ; southernCalifornia (opposite Yuma) ; Sonora (Sonoyta) ; and Sinaloa (Ma-zath'in). South to Sinaloa (Mazatlan) ; and Baja California (Santi-ago and San Jose del Cabo) . West to the Pacific Ocean. The easternwinter range is north to Texas (El Paso, Del Rio, Fort Clark, andDallas) ; southern Louisiana (Cameron and Mandeville) ; westernFlorida (Pensacola) ; eastern Georgia (Okefenokee and Augusta)
;
and coastal North Carolina (Swanquarter and Cape Hatteras). Eastto the Atlantic Ocean. South to southern Florida (Royal Palm Ham-mock) ; the Gulf coast to southern Texas (Harlingen and Browns-ville) ; and central Mexico (Veracruz, Jalapa; Hidalgo, Miraflores;and Jalisco, Ocotlan). West to Jalisco (Ocotlan), Chihuahua (Chi-huahua) , and western Texas (El Paso).The above range includes the entire species, which has been dividedinto 10 subspecies or geographic races. The long-billed marsh wren{T. p. palustris) breeds along the Atlantic coast from Rhode Island toVirginia; Wayne's marsh wren {T. p. waynei) breeds on the coast ofNorth Carolina; Worthington's marsh wren {T. p. griseus) breedsfrom South Carolina to Florida, east coast; Marian's marsh wren{T. p. marianae) is found along the Gulf coast from Charlotte Harbor,Fla., to Mississippi; the Louisiana marsh wren {T. p. thryophilus) oc-curs in the coastal district of Louisiana and Texas ; the Alberta marshwren {T. p. laingi) breeds in Alberta and western Saskatchewan;the prairie marsh wren {T. p. iliacus) breeds from the Great Plainsand Prairie district east to Quebec, New Brunswick, and New Englandthe western marsh wren {T. p. plesius) breeds from central BritishColumbia, central Washington, central Oregon, and northeastern Cali-fornia, east to central Colorado ; the tule wren {T. p. paludicola) breedsin the coastal district from southwestern British Columbia to southernCalifornia; and the Suisun marsh wren {T. p. aestuarinus) breeds inthe interior of California from Napa and Solano Counties south toTulare County.Spring migration.?Some late dates of spring departure are:Florida?Daytona Beach, April 30. Georgia?Athens, May 24. NorthCarolina?Chapel Hill, May 7. Texas?Lytle, May 12.Early dates of spring arrival are : Georgia?^Macon, March 27. NorthCarolina?Raleigh, April 14. District of Columbia?Washington,April 17. Pennsylvania?Harrisburg, April 26. New Jersey?Cape
240 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMay, April 28. New York?Rochester, April 27. Massachusetts
?
Cambridge, April 23. Vermont?Burlington, May 12. KentuckyBowling Green, May 5. Ohio?Sandusky, April 19. Ontario?Hamil-ton, April 6. Indiana?Bloomington, April 7. Michigan?Ann Arbor,April 20. Illinois?Chicago, April 25. Wisconsin?Madison, April11. Missouri?St. Louis, April 13. Iowa?Sioux City, April 17.Minnesota?Minneapolis, April 20. Manitoba?Margaret, May 3.Kansas?Harper, April 4. Nebraska?Lincoln, April 6. SouthDakota?Yankton, April 23. North Dakota?^Wahpeton, April 17.New Mexico?Albuquerque, April 6. Colorado?Boulder, April 3.Fall migration.?Some late dates of fall departures are: BritishColumbia?Okanagan Landing, November 18. Wyoming?Laramie,October 15. Colorado?Boulder, October 22. New Mexico?Mesilla,October 16, Manitoba?Aweme, October 16. North Dakota?Argus-ville, October 21. South Dakota?Sioux Falls, October 26. Ne-braska?Nebraska City, November 12. Kansas?Lawrence, October22. Minnesota?St. Vincent, October 15. Wisconsin?Milwaukee,October 23. Iowa?Keokuk, November 21. Missouri?Forsyth, Octo-ber 2. Michigan?Vicksburg, November 6. Illinois?La Grange, Oc-tober 17. Indiana?Indianapolis, November 9. Ontario?Toronto,October 15. Ohio?Oberlin, November 19. Kentucky?Danville,October 27. Massachusetts?Boston, November 30. New York?NewYork, October 20. New Jersey?Elizabeth, October 20. Pennsyl-vania?Jeffersonville, October 29. District of Columbia?Washing-ton, November 16. North Carolina?Ealeigh, October 19. GeorgiaAthens, October 11.Early dates of fall arrival are : North Carolina?Chapel Hill, Sep-tember 20. Georgia?Athens, September 24. Florida?Fernandina,September 17. Texas?Lytle, October 10.Casual record.?A specimen was collected at Godthaab, Greenland,in May 1823.Egg dates.?^Alberta : 28 records. May 26 to July 8 ; 18 records, June16 to 20.California: 113 records, March 24 to July 22; 63 records, May 4 to31, indicating the height of the season.Florida: 39 records. May 2 to August 13; 20 records. May 24 toJune 11.Illinois : 48 records. May 26 to July 27 ; 29 records, May 30 to June 8.Massachusetts : 31 records. May 27 to June 28 ; 17 records, June 6 to18.New York : 60 records, May 12 to August 13 ; 42 records, June 4 to 24.Virginia : 37 records, April 25 to June 30 ; 26 records, June 6 to 26.Washington : 31 records, March 15 to June 27; 16 records, March 15to April 22 ; 10 records, June 8 to 27.Wisconsin : 12 records. May 26 to July 14.
WORTHINGTON'S MARSH WREN 241TELMATODYTES PALUSTRIS GRISEUS (Brewster)WORTHINGTON'S MARSH WRENPlate 44HABITSThis is the rather small, decidedly gray race of the long-billed marshwrens that is apparently resident in the Atlantic coast region fromSouth Carolina to northern Florida.In naming this race, William Brewster (1893) compares it with thenorthern race as follows : "Black of upper parts much duller and lessextended than in palustris, usually confined to the extreme sides of thecrown and a short narrow area in the middle of the back, and inextreme specimens almost wholly absent. Brown of sides, flanks, andupper parts pale and grayish. Dark markings of the under tail-coverts, flanks, sides, and breast faint, confused and inconspicuous,sometimes practically wanting."The haunts and habits of Worthington's marsh wren are very similarto those of the more northern coastal race. It is confined almostentirely during the breeding season, and probably for the rest of theyear, to the extensive salt marshes along the tidal creeks. Wayne(1910) says that, near Charleston, S. C, when he was a boy, these
"birds fairly swarmed throughout the high marshes bordering thesecreeks and it was not uncommon to find from 25 to 50 nests in a fewhours of careful search." In Florida, according to Arthur H. Howell(1932), "the birds live in the wettest and boggiest parts of the saltmarshes, chiefly on the borders of the tidal creeks, where their nestsare fastened to the growing stems of the rushes, at a height of 2 or 3feet above the water." Ivan R. Tomkins (1932) has found it alongthe Savannah River to about 2 miles west of Savannah, or about17 miles inland from the outer islands, including the river ricefields,where the water is either fresh or brackish according to the heightof the river.Nesting.?Mr. Howell says that these wrens "breed in loose colonies,often of considerable size." The nests "are constructed of dead leavesof rushes and marsh grasses woven together and lined with fine grassesand down from the cattails." What few nests of this wren I haveseen are similar to nests of the species I have seen elsewhere. A nestin my collection was taken by Mr. Worthington in Nassau County,Fla. ; it was 3 feet above the mud, suspended amongst the grass, nearthe edge of a creek in a salt marsh ; it held six fresh eggs on July 6,1906.Eggs.?What eggs I have seen are similar to the eggs of other long-billed marsh wrens, showing the usual variations. Mr. Wayne (1910),however, says: "On several occasions, between the years 1877 and
242 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM1879, I remember distinctly having found pure white eggs of thisform with a speck or two of purplish shell markings at the largerend. The eggs are, however, normally chocolate color, but sometimesof a paler shade and spotted with brownish olive. From four tosix eggs are laid, * * * Three broods are certainly raised, for I havetaken eggs as late as August 9."The measurements of 40 eggs in the United States National Museumaverage 15.4 by 11.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 16.5 by 12.2, 15.5 by 12.5, and 14.1 by 11.1 millimeters.I can find nothing in the recorded habits of this wren that is peculiarto the race. Mr. Wayne says that
?
a mouse (Hespcromys leucopus), which lives in the marsh and builds a nestsimilar to that of the wren, commonly takes possession of the nest and ofteneats the eggs as Well as the young. * * * At the present time the birds arerare and confined to a few restricted and widely separated localities, the greatcyclone of August 27 and 28, 1893, having almost exterminated them. This formis non-migratory, and I understand that it is abundant on the coast of Georgia.If the birds were migratory the places of those that were destroyed by thecyclone of 1893 would be filled by migrants from Florida and Georgia. This,however, has not been the case, showing conclusively that this form is non-migratory. TELMATODYTES PALUSTRIS MARIANAE (Scott)MARIAN'S MARSH WRENHABITSAlthough much of the earlier literature on the status and distribu-tion of Marian's marsh wren is decidedly confusing, it now seemssafe to conclude that it is the resident, breeding form on the westcoast of Florida. The 1931 Check-list gives as its range, "Gulf coastfrom Charlotte Harbor, Florida, to Mississippi." The latest author-ity on Florida birds, Arthur H. Howell (1932) calls it "an abundantresident on the Gulf coast from St. Marks soutli to Old Tampa Bay.* * * Marsh Wrens are not known to breed at Pensacola, and wefound no breeding colonies from that point eastward until we reachedSt. Marks ; from there southward they are abundant in suitable marshesas far as Tarpon Springs. Pennock reported a few birds seen in Char-lotte Harbor, April 11 and 13, 1921, at which time he took a specimenand observed a nearly completed nest."The Rev. H. E. Wheeler (1931) made a survey of the breedingcolonies of Marian's marsh wren on the coast of Alabama, establishingthe fact that this wren breeds in all suitable coastal marshes through-out the whole Gulf coast of that State, but he evidently found nobreeding records for Mississippi. He, also, made an exhaustive studyof the previous literature relating to this wren on the Gulf coast and toits supposed occurrence on the Atlantic coast, which is well worthreading, as an interesting history of the confusion that has existed.
MARIAN'S MARSH WREN 243and to which the reader is referred, as space will permit only a fewquotations from his excellent paper.A perusal of the literature that appeared prior to 1932 will revealsome confusing statements. Dr. Louis B. Bishop (1904) made thefollowing surprising comment : "Originally described from the westcoast of Florida and believed to be resident there and restricted tothat locality, it has only recently become evident that the real home ofMarian's Wren is in the salt marshes that fringe the coast of NorthCarolina. There it is common in spring, breeds, and occasionally re-mains in winter, as I took one on Pea Island?30 miles north of Hat-teras?on Feb. 8, 1901, and found it tolerably common there in Jan-uary, 1904." He found fresh nests there in May, and, after he left,nests with eggs were sent to him from there.Ridgway (1904) gave the range as south Atlantic coast of UnitedStates from North Carolina to South Carolina and western Florida.And the 1910 Check-list gave it as breeding on the coast of North Caro-lina and wintering south to South Carolina and the west coast ofFlorida. Arthur T. Wayne (1910) backs up Dr. Bishop by sayingthat "it breeds, as far as is known, only on the North Carolina coast."He records it as a migrant in South Carolina, where he says that "theyare common mitil the beginning of November, when the great major-ity migrate southward, but a few winter regularly among dense reedswhich grow in profusion on some of the coast islands." Strangelyenough, the 1931 Check-list does not record any marsh wren as breed-ing on the coast of North Carolina
!
It has since become evident that all the Atlantic coast records ofsupposed Marian's marsh wrens, published prior to 1930, are referableto the new dark-colored race, Telmatodytes palustris waynei, recentlydescribed by Dingle and Sprunt (1932). This race is so strikinglysimilar to marianae in most of its characters that the confusing ofthe two is not surprising. The status of loaynei as the breeding marshwren of the North Carolina coast has recently been confirmed by Dr.Alexander Wetmore (1941) and his assistants, as one of the resultsof their field work there during 1939.In his original description of marianae^ W. E. D. Scott (1888b)says : "The great difference between this species and palustns is in theconspicuous barring of the upper and under tail-coverts and the feath-ers of the flanks, and olive instead of rufous brown coloring through-out, with the much darker coloration of underparts." The differencesbetween marianae and toaynei are not so well marked and are muchless conspicuous. Dingle and Sprunt (1932) say : "x\. satisfactory com-parison of Telmatodytes palnstns loaynei with marianae is not possibleon account of inadequacy of specimens of the latter. In size, wayneiseems to be slightly larger than the Florida form ; in color it is quitesimilar, except that there is more white on the under parts."
244 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIn order to satisfy me as to the characters that separate wayneifrom 77ia7ia7ia>e, James L. Peters and James C. Grecnway helped meexamine the series of botli forms in the Museum of Comparative Zo-ology in Cambridge, where there are 31 specimens from the west coastof Florida and 18 specimens from North and South Carolina. Itseems to me that, in the Florida birds, the sides of the head andneck average darker, the black space on the back is rather more ex-tensive and the flanks are browner than in the Carolina birds; also,the breast, in adults at least, is more inclined to be mottled withdusky, and there is much less white on the under parts. These areonly average differences and are rather slight, but the Carolina birdseems to be far enough removed geographically to warrant its recog-nition as a subspecies.Kidgway ( 1904) gives the best description of Marian's marsh wrenas follows:Similar to T. p. palustris, but smaller, the coloration much darker ; pileumusually entirely black or with black largely predominating; white streaks ofinterscapular region narrower, sometimes almost obliterated ; brown of scapulars,rump, etc., darker, the upper tail-coverts (sometimes the whole rump) usuallybarred with dusky; sides and flanks more extensively, and usually darker,brown than in T. p. palustris, the chest often strongly shaded pale brown orbrownish buff; frequently the chest or sides (or both) are speckled with dusky,and sometimes the sides and flanks are barred with darker brown ; under tail-coverts distinctly, often broadly, barred with brown or dusky ; mandible usuallydusky for much the greater part of its length.As to its haimts in the vicinity of Tarpon Springs, Fla., the typelocality, W. E. D. Scott (1890) says: "I have found them most com-monly on the salt water marshes at the head of tide water, but havedetected them in tlie saw-grasses of the fresh water lakes and pondsthat I have investigated for at least ten miles back from the coast."Nesting.?Arthur H. Howell (1932) writes: "In the extensive saltmarshes at the mouth of Pithlachascotee River, near Port Richey,we found these Wrens breeding commonly in the dense growth ofJuncus, standing 4 to 5 feet high. On May 28, 1918, we collectedseveral well-grown young birds. In the marsh at Elvers, June 2,1919, D. J. Nicholson observed several nests from 5 to 9 feet abovethe ground in mangrove trees."There are two sets of eggs in my collection, taken by C. J. Pennock,near St. Marks, Fla., that came from nests 2 feet above the groundin saw grass.D. J. Nicholson wrote to Mr. Wheeler (1931) that these wrens nearNew Port Richey "nest among Juncus (/. roemeriamis) , a sharp-pointed rush, and princij^ally in mangrove trees from 5 to 14 feet abovethe mud in salt marshes. The tree-nesting may seem strange to youand it was quite a surprise to me wlien I found them nesting under
MARIAN'S MARSH WREN 245such odd circumstances. I think high water and rats had somethingto do with this nesting custom here, and it may be a comparativelyrecent habit." From the same source of information, Mr. Wheelergoes on to say
:
Nests of marianae found in mangrove trees were fastened to the forks of smalllimbs, generally at their ends, or in the tops of small mangrove bushes. * * *Occupied nests are lined with soft shredded grasses, and sometimes with feathers,and they are so cleverly woven together that they are a complete protectionagainst rain. None have even been found that were damp inside. Althoughthe marsh wrens nest in colonies, the nests of marianae are seldom less than 40feet apart. On the east coast of Florida Nicholson counted four to six "dummynests" to every occupied nest of grisetis; but in the colonies of marianae on thewest coast near Elfers, he found only one or two bachelor nests to one that wasoccupied.Referring to the coast of Alabama, he writes
:
It was on the tidal fiats, or rather monotypic marshes, of Heron Bayou thatwe found marsh wrens nesting, enough to satisfy the heart of any ornithologist.This region of vast and almost impenetrable marshes is known to the hshermenas West Heron Bay. Several narrow bayous penetrate the grass-grown region,one of them widening into a so-called lake. In such a region, in the tall bladedgrasses, which grow higher than the rushes, and nearer open water, we foundthe marsh wrens numerous. They were singing near their neatly built nests,their entrancing songs being much in the tempo of the songs of the Pi'airieMarsh Wren. * *The nest of Marian's Marsh Wren dilTers in no essential way from the nestof other closely-related species or subspecies. It is globular in shape, well securedto the taller marsh grasses, and usually about 2 or 3 feet above high tide. Often-times the nest can be detected from a moving skifC. The bachelor nests, which areunlined, are in the proportion of four or five to one which is lined and occupied.Eggs.?Marian's marsh wren seems to lay fewer eggs than the north-ern races of the species, usually three to five. These are like the eggsof the species' elsewhere and show the usual variations, some beingquite pale, but most of them being of a deep, rich chocolate-brown;many have a wreath of darker spots about the larger end. The meas-urements of 40 eggs average 15.4 by 12.2 millimeters ; the eggs showingthe four extremes measure 16.4 by 12.7, 16.1 by 12.9, 14.2 by 11.9, and15.0 by 11.0 millimeters.Behavior.?Mr. Wheeler (1931) writes: "Contrary to our expecta-tion, we did not find these wrens particularly shy. The breeding birdswere very easy to approach; and although they did not remain longon open perches they seemed quite unmindful of our invasion of theirterritory, singing joyously all the while, and often within 2 or 3 feetof us. Often and again the males would reappear and perch in plainview on the side of the tallest reed, and that without interruption oftheir song. If we could have walked through the thick vegetation atlow tide with a Graflex camera, we might have gotten pictures of thebirds in action."758066?48 -17
246 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMTELMATODYTES PALUSTRIS WAYNEI Dingle and SpruntWAYNE'S MARSH WRENComment on this subspecies was made under Marian's marsh wren,to which the reader is referred. Since that account was written, theabove subspecies has been accepted and will appear in the next Check-list.Dingle and Sprunt (1932) describe it as "similar to Telmatodytespalustris palustris, but smaller; bill shorter and more slender; wing,tail and tarsus average shorter ; upper parts darker, inclining more toolive brown; head and nape sooty black, the majority of specimensshowing a short, faint median streak ; black dorsal area of greater ex-tent; tail and under tail coverts more heavily barred; flanks richerbrown ; these, and sides of breast with more or less barring.""A satisfactory comparison of Telmatodytes palustris waynei withmarianae^'' these authors say, "is not possible on account of inadequacyof specimens of the latter. In size, waynei seems to be slightly largerthan the Florida form ; in color it is quite similar, except that there ismore white on the under parts."The breeding range of this form seems to be on the coast of NorthCarolina, and it is found in South Carolina and Georgia in winter.See remarks under marianae. Its habits are apparently no differentfrom those of the other coastal races of the species.TELMATODYTES PALUSTRIS THRYOPmLUS OberholserLOUISIANA MARSH WRENHABITSThe long-billed marsh wren of the coast region of southern Louisianais very much like Marian's marsh wren and evidently closely related toit. Ridgway (1904) makes this comparison: "Similar to T. p. mari-anae^ but paler and still smaller; pileum always extensively brownmedially, often mostly brown ; brown of scapulars, rump, etc., lighter,sometimes approaching broccoli brown or drab ; upper tail-coverts un-barred, or with bars very indistinct ; under parts never (?) speckled,but chest more or less strongly tinged with brownish buff, and sides andflanks extensively brown. Differing from T. p. palustris in decidedlysmaller size, duller brown of upper parts, and more extensively brownunder parts."Dr. Oberholser (1938) says that "it lives in the marshes and in thehigh grass of the coast meadows, among the reeds, rushes, grasses, andsimilar kinds of vegetation," which indicates that it is similar in allits habits to the other southern coastal races.The measurements of only five eggs of the Louisiana marsh wrenare available. The eggs are in the United States National Museum.The eggs showing the four extremes measure 16.0 by 12.4 and 15.3 by11.5 millimeters.
ALBERTA MARSH WREN 247TELMATODYTES PALUSTKIS LAINGI HarperALBERTA MARSH WRENHABITSDr. Francis Harper (1926) describes this wren as "nearest to T. p.iliacits, but paler on scapulars, rump, upper tail-coverts, and flanks
;
median area on forehead and crown more distinct. ( T. p. plesius is amuch browner and duller bird than laingi.) "The Athabaska Delta, where the type specimen of this race wastaken, is probably the northernmost point at which any long-billedmarsh wrens breed. Dr. Harper gives, as the range of this subspeciesin summer, Alberta and western Saskatchewan, and says that it seemsto intergrade with the prairie marsh wren in south-central Saskatche-wan, and that the area of intergradation "may coincide with theapproximate boundary between the prairies on the east and the plainson the west."The habits of the Alberta marsh wren are apparently similar in allrespects to those of the prairie marsh wren.There is a very pretty nest of tliis wren in the Thayer collectionin Cambridge, taken near Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta, on June 2, 1900.It was "attached to tules in a muskeg" and was constructed chiefly ofa downy substance that looks like cattail down, very compactly feltedand reinforced with interwoven strips of the tules, or other marshplants, which bound the whole structure very firmly together; itswalls are so thick and solid that it must have been practically rain-proof ; it is about 7 inches high and about 4 inches in diameter. Thereis another nest, from the Little Red Deer River, Alberta, that is morenormal for the species, having been attached to the stems of bulrushesand made of the usual materials.A. D. Henderson, of Belvedere, Alberta, writes to me of an ex-perience that was new to him : "On July 8 I pushed my canoe into alarge bed of tules where marsh wrens were singing, leaving it closeto an empty nest. To enable me to find the canoe again withoutdifficulty after wading the tule bed, I attached a bunch of white cottonto the tops of tall tules. On July 12 I returned to the same spot andfound that the wren had profusely bedecked the nest with the cottonI had left nearby. It was put on quite loosely and not woven intothe structure."The eggs of the Alberta marsh wren apparently show the usual vari-ations common to the species. The measurements of 23 eggs average16.3 by 12.3 millimetters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure16.8 by 12.2, 16.4 by 13.1, 15.2 by 12.7, and 15.9 by 11.9 millimeters.
248 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMTELMATODYTES PALUSTRIS ILIACUS RidgrwayPRAIRIE MARSH WRENPlates 45, 46HABITSThe old familiar type name, long-billed marsh wren {T. f. palus-fris), has been restricted to the wrens of this species living on theAtlantic slope from Khode Island to Virginia, and the birds of in-terior New England and the middle west are now known by the abovenames. Such are the vagaries of name-shifting that our old friend ofthe Massachusetts marshes is now called the "prairie" marsh wren,though hundreds of miles away from the nearest prairies ! In describ-ing this race, Mr. Bangs ( 1902) writes
:
At present there are confused under the name Cistothorus palustris (Wilson)two quite distinct birds ; one, true C. palustris, breeding in the salt and brackishmarshes of the Atlantic coast from Connecticut southward ; the other in-habiting the inland fresh-water marshes and extending north to Massachusetts,Ontario and southern Manitoba. The former, a small bird, has the chin, throatand belly pure white and the breast is' usually white also, though sometimesfaintly clouded with pale brownish, with the rump, upper tail-coverts and scapu-lars dusky brown. The latter is a decidedly larger form, In which the chin,throat and belly are buffy or brownish white, the breast much more distinctlyclouded with brownish and the rump, upper tail-coverts and scapulars reddishbrown.Wilson's plate shows a decidedly white-breasted bird, to which hegave the name palustris; there can be no doubt, therefore, that theAtlantic coast bird should carry the type name.The prairie marsh wren is naturally not evenly distributed through-out its wide range. Marshes of the type it requires are often widelyscattered, or entirely lacking over large areas. Small, isolated marshesof less than an acre in extent are usually avoided, but where the largermarshes contain suitable vegetation the wrens may be very numerousand their nests more so.The favorite haunts of the prairie marsh wren are the large fresh-water marshes of the interior, where there is a dense growth of cattails{Typha angustifolia and T. latifolia)^ bulrushes (Scirpus Jacustris),sedges {Carex) , or wildrice {Zizania aquatica) , which are often mixedwith tall marsh grasses of various kinds, or with a scattering growthof buttonbush {Cephalanthus) and other small bushes. In easternMassachusetts we sometimes find them along the banl?:s of tidal rivers,where the water is brackish and where there is a thick growth oftall reeds and salt-marsh grasses. I have found them, also, in purestands of wildrice bordering a sluggish inland river.Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1905) tells of a large marsh in EssexCounty, Mass., in which "the growth of rushes and grasses is rankand tall, and among these a multitude of Long-billed Marsh Wrens
PRAIRIE MARSH WREN 249live and build their nests. The rush-like plants in which they breedare chiefly as follows, belonging to several widely separated families
:
great bulrush {Scirjms lacustris), horse-tail {Equisetum limonsuin),sweet flag {Acorus calamus)^ blue joint-grass {CalaTriagrostis cana-densis)^ reed canary-grass {Phalaris arundinacea) ySpring.?Very little seems to be known about the migrations ofthe marsh wrens. Elon H. Eaton (1914) says: "Evidently theymigrate at night, and high in the air, so as to see their way and escapetheir enemies more successfully." They arrive in central New Yorkfrom May 4 to 16.Dr. Wilfred A. Welter (1935) has given us such a fine life historyof the prairie marsh wren, based on extensive observations at Ithaca,N. Y., and at Staples, Minn., that I cannot do better than to quotefrom the results of his work. At both places he found that the averagedate for the arrival of the males was May 10 and that the femalescame between May 20 and 28. Males begin to select and defend theirbreeding territories soon after their arrival. He says:The preferred habitat is not, as one might suppose, a dense tangled mass ofdried and broken cat-tails, remnants of the preceding season, but a compara-tively open area with a few tattered stalks and an abundance of some species ofCarex.* * * Fighting over territorial rights between males is, to a large extent,a matter of outblufling the opponent. A male approaching too closely to theboundary of another's area is challenged by the song of the rightful owner.This is usually sufficient for the intruder, but sometimes the challenge is acceptedby the visitor giving voice to his emotions and continuing to transgress uponthe area in question. The first male in this case fluffs out his feathers to impressthe other and, if necessary, fiies at his opponent. The usurper usually recipro-cates by flying at his neighbor a time or two and then, at least in all instancesobserved, becomes the vanquished and departs from the scene of battle.* * * In an area 400 by 650 feet in the Renwick Marsh at the head of LakeCayuga eight males took up residence in the spring of 1931. * * The cat-tail-sedge association was greatly preferred to the grass association by themale birds in selecting territories. * * * TypJia angustifolia is much pre-ferred to T. latifolia as a nesting site. * * * The male territories in thefavored area were noticeably smaller than in the grassy area. A single monog-amous male occupied a territory of from 13,000 to 15,000 square feet, whilein the grass association this was extended to approximately 30,000 square feet.The territory of a polygamous male, on the other hand, was considerably largerthan that of a monogamous male nesting in the same sort of vegetation. * *This difference in size can readily be accounted for by the fact that the femalebirds do not tolerate each other during the nesting season. As a result thosemales inteut upon leading dual lives must separate the objects of their atfectionas widely as possible.Courtship.?The courtship of the marsh wren is expressed in songand in display. According to Dr. Welter (1935) , "song does not seemto be as important in attracting the female as display. Of course thesong originally attracts the prospective mate into the territory and thendisplay becomes first in importance. When the females begin to arrive
250 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfrom the south the males sing almost constantly." The songs at thistime often average about 25 per minute, but during nest building thesongs are less numerous and the intervals between singing periodsbecome longer.
"The display of the male is quite simple but interesting. "When thefemale is near he will take up his station a foot or two above her, fluflfout his breast feathers and under tail coverts, and jauntily cock his tailover his back so that it almost touches. He now resembles a tiny ballof feathers perched among the reeds. As he becomes more animated hebeats his partially folded wings up and down rapidly and sways hishead dizzily from side to side. The female probably will fail to noticehim, or at least she will not indicate any interest, and, after pursuingher and displaying for several minutes, he will burst into song and flyto another portion of the territory."The sexual organs of the male are well developed when he arrives,but those of the female are not, so that she has to avoid him until she isready. Dr. Welter continues
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During the period of nest construction she reaches the height of her developmentand is ready for the mating act. When the male approaches her at this time,singing, she climbs up a cat-tail stalk and gives the trill which has already beendescribed. Then she beats her wings rapidly, points her bill toward the zenith,and places her tail well over her back. The male goes through the courtshipdisplay previously described. At the proper time he climbs upon the back of hismate, beats his wings rapidly as the cloacae come in contact and copulation iscompleted. The whole procedure takes but a few seconds. Both remain in theimmediate vicinity for a short time, the male with feathers fluffed out and tail up,the female quiet and demure.It is usually the male who tries to induce the female into copulation but on oneoccasion the female was observed going through the behavior leading to the matingact to entice the male. In this instance the act had been completed 25 minutespreviously. The male, not giving the proper response, was chased by the femaleamong the cat-tails and it is not known whether she was successful or not.Dr. Welter believes that the male is "essentially polygamous whilethe female is not." Several of the territories were inhabited by onemale and two females, and in one doubtful case it was thought that amale had three mates. There was another doubtful case of polyandry,where a female had no regular mate, and her nest was placed betweenthe territories of two mated males.Nesting.?The prairie marsh wren nests in wet marshes, where thewater is from a few inches to 2 or 3 feet deep, along the banks of tidalrivers where the water is brackish (in Massachusetts), along sluggishinland streams, around the shores of ponds, and in inland marshes orsloughs. It seems to prefer to build its nest in the narrowleaf cattail{Typha angitstifolia) , seldom using the broadleaf species {T. lati-folia). Early in the season, before the green flags have grown to suf-ficient height, I have found the nest in some thick bunch of the deadflags of the previous season, but the new green flags are much pre-
PRAIRIE MARSH WREN 251ferred. The nests are usually placed 1 to 3 feet above water, seldomhigher, and are securely fastened to two or more stems of the cattails.Nests are less often placed in bulrushes (Scirpiis), sedges (Carex),wildrice {Zizania) , tall marsh grasses, or even small bushes. In NorthDakota we found these wrens nesting around the edges of the sloughsin either dead or green cattails, or in the bulrushes. Near Lake Win-nipegosis, Manitoba, we found a nest firmly attached to the canes ofbulrushes, 4 feet above the water ; it was within 4 feet of a canvasback'snest and was lined with down from the nest of the duck. The nest issaid to be shaped like a coconut, or globular, but some that I have seenhave been egg-shaped with the pointed end at the bottom. The en-trance is a small round hole, usually near the top.Dr. Welter (1935) gives an elaborate account of the building of thebrood nest, which is done almost entirely by the female, and whichrequires 5 to 8 days, beginning 6 to 15 days after her arrival. Hewrites
:
The initial effort in building consists of lashing the supporting plants to-gether and in this way form a cup-like foundation upon which the remainder ofthe nest rests. Carex and Calamagrostis are the chief materials used in this partof the structure. The outer walls which are composed for the most part of longstrips of cattail leaves and stems and leaves of sedges and grasses is the roughestpart of the structure. Water-soaked materials, often more than a foot long, areused here as they are more pliable and can more easily be woven together. Thefirst strands are woven around the long axis and others, as the nest assumesshape, are put in at various angles. Some of these strands are fastened to thesupporting structure by actually weaving these stems into the nest. Some ofthe growing leaves are also woven into the outer walls. If the support is a sedgeor a grass, leaves may form a good share of the periphery. An opening is left onone side about two-thirds of the distance from the bottom of the nest. At thisstage a dummy would be complete. The walls average at least a half inch inthickness and the external measurements of the entire structure approximateseven and five inches for the vertical and horizontal diameters, respectively.Inner diameters average five and three inches.The outer shell is a small part of the completed structure, and only 2 days arerequired to build it. The remainder of the work is done from the inside and onemust take a nest to pieces to get an idea of its arrangement. Grass and sedgeleaves and small stems are used to form the second layer. This gives the wallsfirmness and tends to fill in the large air spaces which are necessarily presentamong the coarse materials of the outer walls.The nest layer to be added seems to function as an insulating region. Cat-taildown, feathers, small unidentified rootlets, entire plants of Lemna, and decayedfragments of Typha and Carex are the materials most often used. These are alsoplaced into the structure in a wet condition so that, when dry, they form a compactand tight-fitting region which serves as a non-conductor of heat, cold, and moisture.The innermost region is composed of finely shredded pieces of the vascularmaterials of the plants forming the outer layers. A large proportion of it isvery fine strips of sedges and grasses of the preceding year. Feathers of almostany available sort are used here. Those from the following birds have been identi-fied: Red-winged Blackbird, Virginia Rail, American Bittern, Pheasant, RuffedGrouse, and domestic chicken. The projection at the opening is a part of this in-
252 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
ner lining. This "door-step" or sill is always present In the female nest but islacking in the nests of the male. It is possible, therefore, to determine the sexwhich built a given nest by checking for the presence of this sill. This projectionforms the floor of the opening and extends farther into the nest than any otherpart of the lining. * * *One wonders what the function of this door-step might be. Perhaps it servesas a protection to the eggs and young as the nest, owing to the uneven growthof the supporting plants, often assumes a distorted position which would allowthe contents to roll out were it not for this structure. In like manner when thenests are placed in sedges or grasses winds alter the nests to such an extent thatthe young or eggs would be endangered if no sill were there to prevent tliecatastrophe.Several observers have reported mud in the lining of the nests, butDr. Welter and others have failed to note it ; perhaps some mud maybe brought in accidentally with material secured from the muddyfloor of the marsh ; it seems doubtful if the wrens every carry in mudintentionally.The long-billed marsh wrens are notorious for building extra ordummy nests, which are almost never occupied as brood nests. Theseare built by the males, mainly during the 10 days or so interveningbetween the arrival of the males and the coming of the females.Anywhere from 1 to 10, usually not more than half a dozen, are moreor less incompletely constructed by a single male within the limits ofhis territory. We do not fully understand the reason for these extranests; several theories have been advanced to account for the habit,which is not wholly confined to this species, but none of the theoriesappears wholly satisfactory. The most plausible theory seems to bethat it gives the birds an outlet for surplus energy during the periodof sexual activity, for it almost always ends soon after the femalesarrive and mating takes place. These male nests are never as fullycompleted as are the brood nests ; they usually do not go beyond thefirst stage mentioned above, and are often abandoned before theyreach even that stage of completion. There is little evidence that theyare ever used as brood nests, or as sleeping places for the males, or asterritorial land marks.A. D. DuBois mentions in his notes a nest that was of the "usualconstruction except that the top of the nest was covered by greenleaves bent over and woven together over the top. All the previousnests observed here, having the green leaves woven over (nearly adozen so noted) were empty nests."Milton B. Trautman (1940) noted that, out of 208 nests, observedat Buckeye Lake, Ohio, 161 had their openings facing toward thesouth or west. There was one colony, "which was an exception, for11 of 19 nests opened toward the northeast."Eggs.?The marsh wren's set may consist of 3 to 10 eggs ; the largernumbers are rare; 5 or 6 seem to be the commonest numbers. They
PRAIRIE MARSH WREN 253
are generally ovate, sometimes more rounded and rarely morepointed ; they are not glossy unless heavily incubated. Marsh wrens'eggs are unique in color, the general effect being dull brownish,
"Verona brown" to "snuff brown," or the color of dry, powderedbaking chocolate. The ground color varies from "snuff brown" topale "pinkish cinnamon" ; it is generally evenly sprinkled with minutedots, or very small spots of darker shades of brown, often partially,or wholly, obscuring the ground color ; these markings are sometimesconcentrated into a ring or a cap at the largo end. F. W. Braundtells me that "light or stony gray" eggs are often found in Ohio. Ihave seen eggs with a pinkish ground color and reddish brown spotsthat resembled the eggs of the house wren, but these are rare. Veryrarely an egg, or a whole set of eggs, is pure white and unmarked.The measurements of 40 eggs average 16.5 by 12.4 millimeters;the eggs showing the four extremes measure 17.8 by 12,1, 17.6 by13.3, 15.0 by 13.0, and 17.6 by 11.2 millimeters.Young.?The incubation period, as noted by several observers, isabout 13 days, and the young remain in the nest for about the samelength of time, or a day longer, if not disturbed; Dr. Welter (1935)says 14 days. Incubation seems to be performed wholly by the female,and she feeds the young while they are in the nest; the male assists inthis afterward. Following are some of Dr. Welter's observations onthe young
:
The type of food delivered to the young by the female is determiued to acertain extent by the age of the nestlings. At first this consists of very smalljuicy morsels such as mosquitoes and their larvae, larval Tipulids, midges, andother delicate forms. The mother brings a whole beakful of food to the nestat one time and parcels it out to the hungry occupants. * * * During themorning and evening approximately 10 trips are made per hour with food, butduring midday this number is somewhat reduced.As the nestlings grow the insects brought to the nest become appreciably largerin size. Ground, diving, and long-horned beetles, caterpillars of various assort-ments, sawflies and other hymenoptera, and other accessible forms now consti-tute the diet of the ever-hungry young. Sometimes the insect is so large thatthe young bird experiences difficulties in swallowing it. In such instances thefemale takes the hexapod to the side of the nest, chops and tears it into severalsmaller morsels, and then brings it back for a second trial which is usually asuccess. * * *Even when the nestlings are very young, little time during the day is givento brooding. Usually after a feeding or two the young are brooded for a fewminutes and then feeding is resumed. My records show a total brooding of18 minutes per hour when the young are 2 days old. As the nestlings increasein size the brooding periods become shorter and the intervals between suchperiods become longer, so that, after the first week, they are discontinued duringthe hours of daylight. * * *The excreta, enclosed in their envelopes, are removed by the female after feed-ing. These droppings are usually carried some distance from the nest anddeposited, but occasionally the female has been observed eating them. * * *
254 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWhen the young are small the faecal material is deposited in the bottom of thenest. As the nestlings increase in size, however, they maneuver about until theyassume a position facing away from the entrance, and the dropping is ejectedon the periphery oi .he nest. During the later period of nest lile the youngsucceed in ejecting the excrement witli such force that it is carried over the sideof the nest and drops to the ground. * *Other waste materials, such as eggshells, infertile eggs, or any youngthat might die in the nest are carried away. The young increase inweight very rapidly, from about 0.87 gram at hatching to about 11.08grams at the end of the twelfth day. Meantime the nest has becomeenlarged and worn as the young increase in size. The young mayleave the nest on the twelfth day, if disturbed, but normally not mitilthe fourteenth day. Occasionally one will return to the nest for shel-ter, but they usually spend the nights perched in the dense flags. Theparents care for them for at least 2 weeks, though after the first 10days they are able to secure some of their own food. The family groupremains together through the summer and wanders about at somedistance from the nesting place.It seems to be the consensus that two broods are raised in a season,but not a third. Dr. Welter ( 1935) found no evidence of a third brood,"The female begins her second nest about 2 weeks after the young ofthe first have left the nest. The majority of the nests, then, in theregions' studied would be started between July 15 and August 1, withthe last week in July the most active period." Probably while thefemale is building the second nest the male is busy with the first broodand is not very active in building dummy nests.PluTMiges.?Dr. Welter ( 1936) has published another excellent paperon the development of the plumage in the young marsh wren and onsubsequent molts, to which the reader is referred for details ; it is fullyillustrated with drawings and photographic halftones. It is evidentfrom the photographs that the young bird is practically fully featheredin the juvenal plumage before it leaves the nest, though the wings arenot fully developed and the tail is still rudimentary. Dr. Dwight(1900) says that the natal down is white. In the juvenal plumagethe young wren is much like the adult, but the crown is uniformly dullblack, without the dividing brown area ; the white streaks on the backare very faint or lacking ; and the white superciliary stripe is indistinct.Dr. Dwight says that the first winter plumage is "acquired by a partialpostjuvenal molt beginning about the middle of August which involves*^e body plumage, the wing coverts, probably the tertiaries, but not therest of the wings nor the tail," young and old becoming practically in-distinguishable. Dr. Welter ( 1936) differs from Dr. Dwight, as to theextent of this molt, saying : "Juvenals collected during the fall of 1931which are now in the Cornell Collection show a molt of both rectricesand remiges." These two authorities also differ as to the prenuptialmolt. Dr. Dwight says that the nuptial jplumage, in both adults and
PRAIRIE MARSH WREN 255young birds, "is acquired by a complete prenuptial moult as indicatedby the relatively unworn condition of the feathers when the birds arrivein May." He had no positive evidence of the molt, however. Dr.Welter could "find no evidence of a prenuptial molt in the series ofspecimens examined." The plumage of birds living in such densevegetation must be subjected to rather severe abrasion, which mightrequire a renewal of plumage oftener than once a year; and it maybe that the prenuptial molt takes place during the late winter or veryearly spring, before the birds arrive on their breeding grounds. Dr.Witmer Stone (1896) agrees with Dr. Dwight's view, and I have seensome half a dozen specimens, taken in North and South Carolina,Florida, New Mexico, and Mexico, between February 23 and March 28,that show various stages of a complete prenuptial molt. Whetherthese are adults or young birls I do not know.Food.?The marsh wren feeds almost entirely on insects and theirlarvae, which it obtains on the marsh vegetation or on the floor of themarsh. Dr. Welter (1935) says that "much of the food is obtainednear or from the surface of the water .* * * It is not unusual toobserve the bird as he sights a juicy morsel fly into the air and captureit in the manner of a flycatcher. Insects as large as dragonflies aretaken in this way. * * * Coleoptera and Diptera assume the high-est rank while various other orders are represented to a lesser degree.Carabidae and Dytiscidae occur more frequently among the beetlesthan any other forms while a large percentage of the Diptera belong tothe Tipulidae."F. H. King (1883) reports from Wisconsin that "of 14 stomachsexamined one ate 1 ant; one, a caterpillar; one, 3 beetles; three,3 moths; one a small grasshopper; one, 5 grasshopper eggs; one,1 dragon-fly; and one a small snail." Mosquito larvae are probablyprominent in the food, as are larvae of other flying insects, diminutivemoUusks, and aquatic insects. Forbush (1929), referring to Massa-chusetts, says that "in the salt marsh at high tide, it feeds on insectswhich crawl up on the grass and reeds, and at low tide it feeds largelyon minute marine animals which it finds on or near the ground."Behavior.?The marsh wren is much more often heard than seen.As we drift along some quiet stream bordered by extensive cattailmarshes, we hear all about us the gurgling, bubbling songs, or thechattering, scolding notes of the birds, but not one is in sight in thedense jungle of flags. Perhaps one may explode into the air, risinga few feet above the cattails with an outburst of enthusiastic songand drift down again into cover; or we may see one make a longerflight from one part of the marsh to another, buzzing along on slow,direct, steady flight with rapid wing beats. If we watch quietly,curiosity may prompt one to come peering at us with furtive glancesfrom the shelter of his retreat, clinging with feet wide apart to two
256 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMswaying stems like a little acrobat doing the "splits" ; his tail is helderect or pointed saucily forward and his head is lifted so high thathead, bod}', and tail seem to form a feathered circle. He climbsnimbly up and down the reeds like a feathered gymnast, now glidingdown to the base to pick some food from the water, now gleaning alongthe stems, and again swinging jauntily from a swaying top. He isthe embodiment of active energy, always in motion, never still fora moment, and always chattering, scolding, or singing. He is a shyand elusive little mite ; if we make the slightest motion while watch-ing his antics, he vanishes instantly into the depths of his reedy jungle.Although most of the marsh wrens probably live in harmony withtheir neighbors in the marsh, some, perhaps many, have formed thebad habit of sucking the eggs of least bitterns and red-winged black-birds, as reported by several observers. For example, Dr. Chapman(1900) saw one of these wrens puncture all the eggs in two nests ofleast bitterns, and he attempted to photograph the bird in the act;the wren did not eat the contents of the eggs, though it may havereturned to do so later ; it looked like a case of pure viciousness. AndDr. A. A. Allen (1914) says that "of 51 nests of the Redwing observedin a limited area, the eggs of 14 were destroyed" by marsh wrens,
"and it is not at all uncommon to find one or more of the eggs of anest with neat, circular holes in one side, such as would be made bythe small, sharp beak of a wren." One that he watched "began todrink the contents much as a bird drinks water. After a few sips, itgrasped the eggshell in its beak and flew off into the marsh, where itcontinued its feast." Dr. Welter (1935) evidently thinks that suchbehavior is exceptional for he says: "Many nests of other speciesof birds were under observation in the marsh and at no time werepunctured eggs found or other indications of egg eating by the MarshWren observed."Voice.?^Wilson (Wilson and Bonaparte, 1832) evidently did notadmire the vocal powers of the marsh wren, saying that "it would bemere burlesque to call them by the name of song," for "you hear a low,crackling sound, something similar to that produced by air bubblesforcing their way through mud or boggy ground when trod upon";this is a fair description of some of the notes, but he apparently wasnot referring to the full song, parts of which are quite musical. F.Schuyler Mathews (1921) says that the song "ripples and bubblesalong in a fashion similar to that of the Winter or House Wren, butwith a glassy tinkle in tone not characteristic of the songs of the otherspecies and a tempo perceptibly more rapid than that of the HouseWren's music." Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1905) writes: "The songbegins with a scrape like the tuning of a violin followed by a trillwith bubbles, gurgles, or rattles, depending no doubt on the skillor mood of the performer, at times liquid and musical, at other times
PRAIRIE MARSH WREN 257
rattling and harsh, but always vigorous. It ends abruptly but isgenerally followed by a short musical whistle or trill, as if the Wrenwere drawing in its breath after its efforts. I have heard one singfifteen times in a minute."Dr. Welter's (1935) description is only slightly different; he dis-sects the song into three parts; first a grinding sound consisting oftwo to five notes with somewhat the quality of the aao notes of thewhite-breated nuthatch; then comes the more musical "warble-like"part, which reminds him "of a sewing machine of the older sortbeing run rapidly, but of course it is less metallic and more musical.It has much of the spontaneity of the House Wren's song but is other-wise quite distinct. This middle section begins at a low pitch, climbsupward, and then descends again." The third section he calls a trill,which is again "quite low but lacks the harshness of the beginning ofthe song. * * *
"This entire song is given during May and most of June. Towardthe end of the month, however, the last part is often omitted and oftenneither the beginning nor the end is heard." The song period seemsto cease entirely in August, but the full song has been heard in Octo-ber, which may mean that a second song period occurs in fall.The marsh wren is a persistent singer, chiefly during the earlymorning and the evening hours, but during the height of the seasonit sings all day and often at night. Only the male sings. He singswhile clinging to the reeds or while moving among them ; he indulgesin his most delightful flight song while flying above the vegetationfrom one part of his territory to the other; or, rising in the air to aheight of several feet, he flutters down to cover again in full song.This wren also has several alarm, call, or chattering notes. Ac-cording to Dr. Welter (1935)?the fct'fc fce/b or tschuk is given by the female. The male's note sometimes resem-bles this also but can usually be distinguished by its more grating nature andmay be described as rrek. A series of notes is usually given togetlier so therrek's do not sound very distinct as they roll into each other producing a chatter-ing. The kek notes, however, while also given together, maintain their identity.The female has a hissing sound that she gives if too closely pressed by the male.Preceding copulation the female has been heard to give a trill like that at theend of the male's song.The call notes of the young are quite similar to those of the adult. The nestling,when the female arrives with food, gives a beady peep or peet. At lirst thesenotes are scarcely audible but as the young become older and stronger the peet isclearly heard. As the young leave the nest the peet gradually develops into aqxieck. It is much more squeaky than the adult kek and also lacks the woodyquality. The notes of the juvenal become more and more like those of the adultuntil they are indistinguishable.He says that the songs of the young males begin late in August andare entirely different from those of the adult. They reminded himat first of "the efforts of a not altogether successful Catbird," but they
258 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMwere "given in a more rasping manner. The grating notes of the be-ginning and the trill at the end are usually omitted by young birds."Mr. Trautman (1940) "timed an isolated singing male whose terri-tory was in a small stand of cattail and found that between 10 p. m.and 3 a. m. his average was 9 songs a minute." Another, in a simi-lar situation, sang at the rate of 11 songs a minute between 1 :40 a, m.and 2 :50 a. m. on a moonlight night. The singing slowed down duringthe middle of the day, between 10 a. m. and 2 p. m., to 4 songs a minute."The amount of singing done by these birds declined sharply aftermid-August, and by September 5, only an occasional, half-heartedsong could be heard."Aretas A. Saunders writes to me : "The song of this bird is ratherlow-pitched and guttural, or sometimes squeaky. It consists of a se-ries of rapid notes, so rapid as to call the result a trill, but more fre-quently slow enough to count the number. In 26 of my records, with-out trills, the number of notes varies from 8 to 16 and the averagenumber is 12. In a majority of the songs the notes are all equal intime, but some have portions where the notes are more rapid in partof the song. These portions are sometimes the beginning and some-times the end, or occasionally in the middle of the song.
"The pitch of the notes varies from C" to C". One record is all onone pitch (B'"). A number of others are all on one pitch except thefirst or the final note, but others vary in numerous ways. The great-est variation in pitch in any one song is 2i/^ tones, and the averageiy2 tones. I have occasionally seen a bird sing a flight song, when thesong is somewhat more prolonged than I have described, but I havenever succeeded in getting a record of this song.
"In spite of the simplicity of this song the individuals vary it con-siderably. I have recorded five different songs from one individual.The quality sometimes changes from guttural to squeaky in the samesong. The time of songs varies from ll^ to 2 seconds, though flightsongs are probably longer."Field marks.?One hardly needs field marks to recognize a long-billed marsh wren, for it is wrenlike in appearance and behavior, andno other wren lives in such wet marshes. If perchance it is seen inthe drier part of a marsh or meadow, it can be distinguished from theshort-billed marsh wren by the blackish, unstreaked crown, the whiteline over the eye, and the black upper back streaked with white.Enemies.?Hawks and owls would have difficulty in capturing theseactive little birds as they dive into their dense retreats. Red-wingedblackbirds are often seen chasing wrens for reasons stated above.Dr. Welter (1935) mentioned three small mammals, meadow mice,jumping mice, and Bonaparte's weasels, as probably guilty of destroy-ing some eggs and young. He says that Dr. A. A. Allen has seenbronzed grackles eating the young and has found bumble bees occupy-
WESTERN MARSH WREN 259ing the nests. Fleas, lice, and hippoboscid flies sometimes damage theyoung.Fall.?Dr. Welter writes : "There is no marked exodus of birds fromthe marsh at a given time in the fall. At first the young of the yearremain in family groups but, as the time of departure approaches,there is an apparent flocking together of young birds, usually near thethe water's edge. At this time 25 or 30 birds may be observed togetherfeeding near the surface of the water. * * * The first birds toleave are the adults and some of the young of the first brood." Noadults were found after September 10; the birds that remain after thatdate are young birds, mostly those of the second brood, either in juvenalplumage or molting out of it. "As these birds complete the molt they,too, depart for their winter homes so that, by October 20, only a fewscattered individuals remain. By the first of November these, also,have departed."Elon H. Eaton (1914) describes the departure thus:On one occasion while I was concealed in a blind watching for ducks to enterthe marsh, I saw the last representative of this species leave the marshes at thefoot of Canandaigua Lake. It was a cool night late in October when the moon wasat the full. The little fellow uttered a feeble warble which attracted my attentionand then rose from near my station, fluttering higher and higher into the airuntil lost at an elevation of about 300 feet, where I caught my last glimpse of himagainst the full moon. The following morning when I visited the marsh no morewrens were left. Evidently they migrate at night, and high in the air, so as tosee their way and escape their enemies more successfully.Winter.?Most of the prairie marsh wrens migrate in fall and spendthe winter in Mexico or along the Gulf coast to western Florida. Butsome few individuals remain in their summer haunts all winter in theshelter of the dense cattail marshes. There are winter records forMassachusetts, Connecticut, New York, and Ohio. It may be that theyare more common in winter than we realize, for they are silent andremain well hidden in the marshes, where they are hard to find.TELMATODYTES PALUSTRIS PLESIUS OberholserWESTERN MARSH WRENPlate 47HABITSThe western marsh wren breeds in the Great Basin regions of thewestern United States, from central British Columbia, Washingtonand Oregon, and northeastern California eastward to the Rocky Moun-tains in central Colorado and southward into New Mexico. Its winterrange extends into Mexico.Ridgway (1904) describes it as "very similar in coloration of upperparts to T. p. iliacus, but the brown averaging paler and decidedly lessrufescent ; upper tail-coverts usually more or less distinctly barred with
260 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMdusky, and middle rectrices more distinctly barred ; color of flanks, etc.,conspicuously different, being pale wood brown, pale isabclla color, orpale broccoli brown instead of bright buffy cinnamon or tawny-bufF, theunder tail-coverts usually more or less distinctly barred ; wing and tailaveraging decidedly longer (especially the tail), cuhnen averagingslightly shorter."The haunts of the western marsh wren are evidently similar to thoseof the other races that breed in the fresh-water marshes and sloughs inthe interior.Nesting.?Dawson and Bowles (1909) give a very good descriptionof the nest of this wren as follows
:
The Marsh Wren's nest is a compact ball of vegetable materials, lashed midwayof cat-tails or bulrushes, living or dead, and having a neat entrance hole in oneside. A considerable variety of materials is used in construction, but in any givennest only one textile substance will preponderate. Dead cat-tail leaves may beemployed, in which case the numerous loopholes will be filled with matted downfrom, the same plant. Fine dry grasses may be utilized, and these so closely wovenas practically to exclude the rain. On Moses Lake, where rankly growingbulrushes predominate in the nesting areas, spirogyra is the material most largelyused. This, the familiar, scum-like plant which masses tinder water in quietplaces, is plucked out by the venturesome birds in great wet hanks and plasteredabout the nest until the required thickness is attained. AVhile wet, the substancematches its surroundings admirably, but as it dries out it shrinks considerably andfades to a sickly light green, or greenish gray, which advertises itself among theobstinately green bulrushes. Where this fashion prevails, one finds it possible topick out immediately the oldest member of the group, and it is more than likely toprove the occupied nest.The nest-linings are of the softest cat-tail down, feathers of wild fowl, or driedspirogyra teased to a point of enduring fluffiness. It appears, also, that the Wrens(?ften cover their eggs upon leaving the nest. Thus, in one we found on the 17thof May, which contained seven eggs, the eggs were completely buried under a looseblanket of soft vegetable fibers. The nest was by no means deserted, for the eggswere warm and the mother bird very solicitous, insomuch that she repeatedlyventured within a foot of my hand while I was engaged with the nest.A nest in the Thayer collection, taken in Lassen County, Calif., onMay 10, 1910, was built in tules 2i/2 feet above the water. It is alarge well-made nest constructed mainly of the fruiting or dry flowerclusters of some marsh plant, firmly reinforced and compactly inter-woven with narrow strips of tules or other marsh plants, forming avery solid and durable structure ; it measures about 7 inches in heightby about 4 inches in diameter.Eggs.?The eggs of the western marsh wren are indistinguishablefrom those of the other races of the species. The measurements of 40eggs average 16.1 by 12.6 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 17.3 by 13.2, 16.6 by 13.4, and 14.5 by 11.0 millimeters.Winter.?Harry S. Swarth (1917) makes the following interestingobservation on the winter distribution of this wren in California
:
TULE WREN 261The known breeding range of the western marsh wren in California is verylimited, being merely the restricted northeastern corner of the State, a regionwhich shows strongly Great Basin faunal affinities. In winter, however, plesiusis perhaps the most abundant of any form of the species, occurring in numbersover a large part of the State. It is an especially numerous winter visitant in theSan Diegan district of southern California. In this region summer is the dryseason, a period of such excessive aridity that birds with the needs and pro-clivities of tlie marsh wrens are closely limited as to habitat, being restricted toextremely circumscribed areas about the few suitable permanent streams andsloughs. In winter this is all changed. Abundant rains often transform whatwere dry fields and pastures into ponds and marshes, while every roadside ditch isrunning full, and bordered with dense vegetation. In consequence, the visitingmarsh wrens are enaliled to scatter widely over the country.He cites a number of records from various points along the coasts ofCalifornia and Oregon, which indicate that "individuals of this formmay occasionally be found in winter at any point along the coast."But he shows clearly that the center of abundance in winter is insouthern California, "both on the deserts and in the San Dieganregion." TELMATODYTES PALUSTRIS PALUDICOLA (Balrd)TULE WRENHABITSProfessor Baird (1864) was the first to name and describe a westernrace of this species, based on one specimen from Washington and threefrom California, and his name still applies to the long-billed marshwrens of the Pacific coast district from British Columbia to southernCalifornia. His brief description gives as its characters: "Billshorter than tarsus. Tail coverts distinctly banded all across. Bandson tail quite distinct ; appreciable on the central feathers."Kidgway (1904) gives a fuller description, based on 17 specimens,as follows : "Most like T. p. palusfris, but tail-coverts usually barred(especially the upper) , middle rectrices more distinctly barred, flanks,etc., deeper brown, bill smaller, and tail decidedly longer; agreeingwith T. p. plesius in barred tail-coverts, more distinctly barred tail,and relatively longer tail, but decidedly smaller and with colorationdecidedly darker."The name tule wren must not be understood to implj'^ that this wrenis wholly or even mainly, confined to the tules {Scirpus lacustrisOGcidentalis) ; although it breeds abundantly in this type of vegetationin the extensive marshes or where it grows around the shores of lakes,it also breeds commonly in the cattail marshes along the intersectingchannels or the banks of quiet streams, and in the salicornia of coastalmarshes where the supply of cattails is inadequate.Dr. Gordon D. Alcorn writes to me that the tule wren is abundantin suitable localities in western Washington but says that "the wren75S06G?4S- 18
262 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMpopulation diminishes sharply within a few miles of the PacificOcean ; this might be due to the scarcity of suitable swamps for nest-ing purposes. The swamps within this region are mostly of low-growing sedges ( Carex) , barely reaching 2 feet in height. In mostof the swamps the cattails {Tyjyha), of which the wrens are so fond,are scarce or entirely lacking. I regularly visit two wren areas inGrays Harbor County. The first is located on the shores of theharbor and comprises an area of approximately 5 acres. Few cat-tails are present, the swamp possessing mostly sedges with a fewscattered willows. The area almost touches salt water, as the limitsof the gi'ounds are bounded on the south and west by the high-water line. I visit also a rather extensive swamp paralleling theocean beach in the vicinity of Oyhut, Wash. This swamp covers adistance of about 4 miles and is composed of low sedges with afew spiraea bushes."Spring.?Samuel F. Kathbun tells me that, near Seattle, this littlewren is more or less resident in the region, although found morecommonly from early spring until late in the fall. "There appearsto be a movement of the species during late March and early April
;
for at this period birds will be heard and seen in and about smallmarshes or similar localities, in which they are absent during thenesting season."Nesting.?Dr. Alcorn says in his notes that, in the localities men-tioned above, the nests are usually placed within a foot or two ofthe water ; the birds use sedge leaves for building and line the nestswith willow cotton ; the nests are always fragile structures ; and thereare not so many decoy nests as are found farther inland.In the dense cattail swamps farther back from the coast, the nestsare more substantial and more typical of the species. In the Thayercollection in Cambridge there are two distinct types of well-builtnests, both collected by J. H. Bowles in Pierce County, Wash. One,built 4 feet above the water in dense cattails, where the water was3 feet deep, is a compact, oval ball, made largely of cattail downinterwoven with and firmly bound together with strips of the flagsit would have furnished a warm, dry shelter for the young. Theother, "woven among coarse marsh grass" in a fresh-water marsh, isa firmly woven and well-made ball of interlaced strips of marshgrasses and reeds, a common type for the species.Walter E. Bryant (1887) published the following note on a nestfound by A. M. Ingersoll in an unusual situation: "A conspicuousnest, containing eggs, was woven among the almost leafless branchesof a young willow, five feet above a fresh-water marsh."The tule wren seems to be a prolific builder of decoy or male nests.Irene G. Wheelock (1904) says that she has examined "30 in 1day and found but 1 occupied, and that was the oldest, most tumble-
TULE WREN 263down of the lot." And Dawson and Bowles (1909) say that "ina day Mr. Bowles found 53 nests, only 3 of which held eggs oryoung. At least 2 broods are raised in a season." His brother,Charles W. Bowles (1898), throws some light on the use that maybe made of these dummy nests : "In the spring of 1896 I found anempty marsh wren's nest, and on passing by later in the day, sawthree nearly fledged young in it. There were also other nests nearby, with one or more young in each. It seems to me probable thatthese duplicate nests are built, if the birds have a large family, forthe young to roost in, at least at night, when they are too large tobe all contained in one nest, but not yet able to take care ofthemselves."Eggs.?The eggs of the tule wren are apparently no different fromthose of other long-billed marsh wrens. The measurements of 40 eggsaverage 16.3 by 12.8 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 17.6 by 13.0, 16.8 by 13.5, 15.5 by 12.8, and 16.0 by 12.0 milli-meters. These eggs are all in the United States National Museum.Toimg.?Mrs. Wheelock (1904) writes:Twelve days are required for incubation, and even during this sliort periodthe mother is not a close sitter. I have known her to leave the nest for 2 hoursin the middle of the day, trusting to the intense heat of the sun to perform hertask for her; and but for the thick, moist walls of the cradle, this same sunwould have been fatal to the bird life within the shells.As soon as the eggs hatched in the nest I was watching, I cut a slit in the topof it to look at the young. They were naked, light pink in color, with tiny heads,mere knobs for eyes and buds for wings ; each nestling measured 1 inch in length.After this examination I tied up the slit, and before I was a yard away themother entered the nest again. Four days later the eyes of the young wrens hadbegun to open, and looked like tiny slits, while a thin huffy down covered thetop of their heads and was scattered sparsely over their bodies. As in the youngof the long-billed marsh wrens, the ear openings were conspicuously large. Billand legs had changed from pink to light burnt-orange in color. They were fedby regurgitation for the first 4 days and doubled in weight every 24 hours. Whena week old they were commencing to feather, and in 3 days more were nearlyready to leave the nest. They were now fed on larvae of water insects, slugs,and dragonflies, besides other insects, and meals were served four times an hourduring most of the day.These young wrens left the nest, when examined, at an age of 12days ; they were able to glean some of their food but were fed by theirparents for 2 weeks longer.Food.?Only 53 stomachs of the California races of this species wereexamined by Professor Beal (1907) , in which animal matter amountedto 98 percent, and vegetable matter, consisting of a few seeds of sedgesand one of amaranth, amounted to 2 percent. "Beetles, wasps, ants,bugs, caterpillars, and a few miscellaneous insects, with some spidersand snails, make up the bill of fare." Bugs?assassin bugs, damselbugs, stink bugs, leafhoppers, and treehoppers?constituted the largest
264 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMitem, 29 percent. Scales were found in one stomach. Caterpillars andchrysalids amounted to 17 percent, beetles (mainly harmful species) 16percent, ants and wasps 8 percent, flies, grasshoppers, dragonflies, anda few other insects 11 percent. Spiders were eaten regularly and madeup over 5 percent of the food. One stomach contained 11 small snails.Not much more need be said about the habits of tule wren after allthat has been written about the prairie marsh wren, for their habitsare practically identical. Although some suspicion exists, there is nopositive evidence that snakes destroy the eggs or young of these wrens,so far as I know. Dr. Gordon D. Alcorn (1931), however, publishedthe following observation, which is at least suggestive ; a pair of wrenswere much disturbed by the presence of a garter snake near their nests.The snake was slowly crawling some 2 to 5 feet above the water over the deadcattail leaves and stems in which were located a number of occupied and unoccu-pied wren nests. The birds remained perfectly silent, but with outspread wingsand ruffled feathers darted again and again at the head of the reptile. The snakepaid no attention to the birds but continued to "explore", finally approaching awren nest and entering it. About two-thirds of the snake's body remained outsidethe nest while it stayed at the nest for about 30 seconds. The snake was allowedto enter several nests in a similar manner. It was then killed and the stomachexamined and found to be empty but for a well-digested slug. Also each nestentered was examined and each found to be empty (undoubtedly "decoys," aseach was unlined and in a conspicuous position.) * * * The snake was with-out doubt looking for food, either eggs or young birds, in these nests, and wasnot able to discriminate between occupied and unoccupied nests.Dawson (1923) writes: "In autumn the Tule Wrens leave thesheltered precincts of the ponds, and go roaming about through dryweed patches and adjacent chaparral. Here they are as noisy and aselusive as ever, and are in nowise awed by their less usual sur-roundings. There is, doubtless, some invasion from the north andconsequent crowding in winter."Mrs. Amelia S. Allen tells me that "on September 24, 1941, theywere abundant in a damp cow pasture inland in sedge grass."TELMATODYTES PALUSTRIS AESTUARINUS SwarthSUISUN MARSH WRENHABITSIn naming this race Mr. Swarth (1917) says of its characters:"In coloration aestuarinus is darker than the average of fdludicola^especially as compared with southern Californian examples of thelatter. Occasional specimens of paludicola^ however, from all partsof its range, are quite as dark colored. In dimensions, T. p. aestuariusdiffers from T. p. fdbudicola in its greater size throughout, being ofabout the same dimensions as T. p. plesius. From plesius it differs inits much darker coloration." This subspecies seems to be an inter-mediate between the two adjacent races, resembling one in color and
SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN 265the other in size. It also occupies a rather limited breeding rangebetween the other two, mainly in Solano and Sonoma Counties, Calif.The 1931 Check-list gives its range as "west-central California, breed-ing at the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, inNapa and Solano Counties, and thence south to Tulare County. Inwinter spreads beyond its breeding range to Oregon and southernCalifornia." Living as it does in a smilar type of country, we shouldhardly expect to find anything in its habits that is different fromthose of the neighboring races.The eggs of the Suisun marsh wren do not differ materially fromthose of the species elsewhere. The measurements of 27 eggs average16.0 by 12.7 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure17.1 by 13.2, 16.6 by 13.4, 14.4 by 12.4, and 15.0 by 12.1 millimeters.CISTOTHORUS PLATENSIS STELLARIS (Naumann)SHORT-BILLED MARSH WRENPlates 48-51HABITSThis tiny wren is more of a meadow wren than a marsh wren, forit shuns the wettest marshes where the long-billed marsh wren lovesto dwell among the tall, dense growths of cattails or bulrushes andwhere the water is a foot or more deep. It prefers the drier marshesor wet meadows, where there is little water or where the ground ismerely damp. These are what we call the sedge meadows, where theprincipal growth consists of various species of Carex and tall grasses,often growing in thick tufts, and various other plants that need alittle moisture. Such marshes are often intersected by streams orditches or are bordered by lower and wetter marshes where cattailsand bulrushes flourish in the deeper water; the short-billed marshwrens have often been seen among the cattails and have even beenknown to build their nests low down in these flags, but they muchprefer to breed in the sedge and grass association. A large marsh ofthe latter type, near my home, has been a favorite breeding groundfor these wrens for many years ; there are some small willows, alders,and gray birches along the banks of the intersecting ditches ; and smallbushes scattered through the marsh serve as singing stations for thewrens ; many flowering plants add color to the scene all through sum-mer, and it is a glorious sight early in fall when the bur-marigoldcarpets the whole meadow with a blaze of yellow. A pair of marshhawks may be seen here in spring performing their courtships; wehave often seen the male in his spectacular flight and have flushed thefemale from her nest. This and other similar swamps in easternMassachusetts are the favorite haunts of swamp sparrows, song spar-rows, Henslow's sparrows, and northern yellowthroats.
266 BULLETIN 196, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUML. McI, Terrill (1922), writing of the Montreal district, says: "Inthis locality the Short-billed Marsh Wren has a decided preferencefor sphagnum bogs?not so much the bog proper as the firmer groundabout the bog margins, where there is a certain amount of free surfacewater and a fairly heavy growth of grasses and sedges. Here the silkytassels of the cotton-grass waving above the lesser growth, are a famil-iar sight and one is more apt to find swamp laurel in greater abundancethan bushes of Labrador Tea, which appears to thrive better in theyielding sphagnum. Clumps of alders are also commonly found withan occasional tamarack sapling and sometimes beds of cattails, whileoften there is a thicket of poplars and birches in the background."Dr. Lawrence H. Walkinshaw (1935) says that in Michigan "thefavorite habitat of the Short-billed Marsh Wren is not among thelarge groups of cattails with several feet of standing water, but ratherin the higher part of the marshes, in the intermediate portion betweenthe bordering meadow and the deepest part of the swamp itself. Thereis generally very little and often no water at all where they nest." Hesays that "these marshes are .the favorite habitat for the sandhill crane* * *, Yellow Rail * * *, Greater Prairie Chicken * * *,Savannah Sparrow * * *^ Henslow's Sparrow * * *^ Leconte'sSparrow * * *, Swamp Sparrow * * *^ j^j^(j Song Sparrow* * *." Among the plants growing in the marsh, he lists royal,sensitive, and marsh ferns, cattails, wood bulrush, showy ladyslipper,calopogon, some of the smaller willows, fringed and closed gentians,climbing wild cucumber, tall ironweed, joepyeweed, blue vervain, Can-ada goldenrod, beggarticks, nodding bur-marigold. New Englandaster. Yellow dock, and turtlehead. "In the early part of the summergrasses and sedges predominate, and later the appearance of themarsh takes on the gay colors, the yellows and blues, of the goldenrods,asters, and vervains."Wendell Taber tells me that in a marsh in New Hampshire, at anelevation of 1,020 feet, he has found this wren in June for four sea-sons in succession; he usually hears olive-sided and alder flycatchersand once a winter wren singing while he was listening to the marshwren.The short-billed marsh wren is widely distributed over the cen-tral and eastern parts of southern Canada and a large part of thenorthern half of the United States. But it does not seem to be evenlydistributed and seems to be rare or unknown in many portions of thiswide range. It is common only where it can find suitable marshes;some of these marshes may contain only one or two pairs, whileothers may support populous colonies. Perhaps it is commoner inmany places than is generally supposed, because of its small size andshy, retiring habits. Furthermore, the marshes where it lives arenot as carefully explored by bird lovers as some other places.
SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN 267Nesting.?This wren not only lives in a different type of habitatfrom that of the long-billed species, but its nesting habits are quitedifferent.It has been said by some authors to build a nest like that of the long-billed marsh wren and in similar situations ; I have seen such supposednests of this species in collections. These nests all contained whiteeggs and were naturally taken to be short-billed marsh wrens' nests.But, as the long-billed marsh wren sometimes lays white eggs, per-haps oftener than we realize, I suspect that some of, if not all, thesenests may have belonged to the latter species.It has been my experience, and I find that most authors agree withme, that the short-billed marsh wren builds its nest almost, if not quite,always in the types of habitat described above and not in the dense,deep-water cattail swamps ; the nest is placed in sedges or grass, or otherlow herbage, close to the ground, mud, or very shallow water, not morethan a foot or two above it at the most, and never at the heights favoredby the long-billed species in cattails and bulrushes ; the nest is globularin shape and not oval, ovate, or coconut-shaped ; it is well hidden deepdown in the thick sedges or grasses, very different from the conspicuousdomiciles of the other species ; it is a ball of dry and green grasses, witha well-concealed opening on the side; generally the growing greengrasses are woven into the ball, making it inconspicuous, and often thegrowing grasses are arched over it, helping still further to conceal it.It is a very difficult nest to find, most easily overlooked, and the birdusually sneaks away from it without betraying its location.Three of the nests described in my notes illustrate the slight varia-tions I have noted in Massachusetts nests, all of which were found infresh-water marshes near Boston. One, in a marsh where the waterwas nearly knee deep, was in plain sight on the side of a tussock oftall grass on the edge of an open place, about 2 feet above the water
;
it was, however, almost invisible and could have been easily overlooked,as it was made of green grass woven into a neat ball and so placed as toblend perfectly into the surrounding grasses. Another was beauti-fully hidden on the side of a large tuft of tall grass, the opening lookingout to the northward across a little shallow open water between thetufts ; the bottom of the nest was 12 inches above the water, and thetallest grass tops were about 12 inches above the top of the nest ; theconcealment of the nest was made more effective by wrapping aroundit many blades of green growing grass, giving it the appearance ofbeing made of green grass. The third, in a meadow that was not verywet, was placed near the base of a tuft of tall grass only a few inchesfrom the damp ground ; it was made entirely of coarse dry grasses andwas lined with fine grass, feathers, and fur. One found in the samemarsh by my companion, Owen Durfee, was in shorter green grass,
268 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
not tufted, near a ditch ; the bottom of this nest was only 4 inches abovethe mud.A nest found by Mr. Terrill (1922) in the locality near Montreal,described above, was "almost resting on the [sphagnum] moss at thebase of a low kalmia bush. It was very loosely fastened to the bushand was fairly well hidden by surrounding grasses. In respect ofbeing globular and having a side entrance it resembled the nest of theLong-billed Marsh Wren. Otherwise the loose construction andcomposition of very old grasses and sedges recalled nests of the shrew.Also it was resting practically on the ground, or moss. It containedtwo newly hatched young and three addled eggs, two of which werecracked. As far as I could discover the lining consisted of down frompoplar (?) catkins, a piece of fur-covered hare skin, and a few chicka-dee feathers."A nest studied by Henry Mousley (1934) near St. Hubert, Quebec,in the same general region, is thus described: "The nest, an almostglobular structure with a small entrance hole on one side, was composedoutwardly of narrow strips of dry cattail leaves whilst the inside liningconsisted of a thick layer of cattail down and five white feathers of adomestic fowl. It was only 2 inches above the ground, at the foot of aclump of the common or soft rush {Jv/ncus ejfusus) , this being the moreor less general situation. Its height was 6 inches, width 5 inches, whilstthe inside diameter was 3 inches." The surrounding herbage consistedprincipally of goldenrods, intermixed with rushes and sedges, as wellas clusters of asters, spiked purple loosestrife, meadowsweet, beggar-ticks, and Roman wormwood.The nests observed in Michigan by Dr. Walkinshaw (1935) wereapparently similar in location and construction to the Massachusettsnests described above, "all in dense thick masses of small-leafed sedge,or in a combination of sedges and finer grasses." The birds usuallybuild several nests, "and the used nest is often a little closer to theground than the false ones. * * * Often the false nests of onepair will be located almost to the territory of another pair, in largemeadows where they seem to congregate in colonies. In the marshstudied in Calhoun County, during 1934, in an area of about 10 acres,there were as many as 35 or 40 males singing at the same time, while inother places of smaller size only one pair could be found."I have no firsthand knowledge of the number of false, or dummy,nests usually built by this wren, but many observers have referred tothe universal habit. These nests are presumably built by the male,but this does not seem to have been definitely proved ; they are usuallyunlined and not so well built as the brood nest. Forbush (1929) says
:
"It is a great nest builder. Just how many unlined nests one ambitiousmale will build nobody seems to know, but where there is a large colony
SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN 269
of these wrens, the nests are 'legion,' and where few birds are breedingthe occupied nests are difficult to find."Eggs.?The commonest mmiber of eggs in the nest of the short-billed marsh wren seems to be 7, but as few as 4 and as many as 8 havebeen recorded. The eggs are ovate or pointed-ovate, the shells arethin and very fragile, and the color is pure white and unmarked. Themeasurements of 50 eggs in the United States National Museum aver-age 16.0 by 12.0 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes meas-ure 17.3 by 12.7, 17.0 by 12.7, 14.4 by 11.3, and 15.2 by 11.2 millimeters.Yoimg.?The period of incubation has been stated as from 12 to 14days, and is apparently performed by the female alone. Dr.Walkinshaw (1935) writes:The young of the Marsh Wren remain in the nest from 12 to 14 days. They arefed by the female almost entirely but the male occasionally will stop to feedthem. Excreta are carried away by the mother bird on her feeding trips to thenest.When the weather was very warm, the young peered out througli the opening,breathing very fast with mouths wide open. They showed little fear of manuntil they were about 12 to 14 days old, then when one approached the nest theywatched very dubiously.After they leave the nest the young move about among the sedge and bushes ofthe marsh like little mice, except that they occasionally move up to secure foodfrom their parents which feed them until they are able to take cai'e of them-selves, even then they move about in small groups until migration time.At the nest watched by Mr. Mousley (1934), "altogether, the youngwere fed 28 times in the 6 hours, or at the rate of once in every 13 min-utes, and this by the. female alone, her partner contenting himself byalways singing from his favourite station on the thorn bush, whenevershe approached the nest."Several observers have stated that two broods are raised in a sea-son. Fresh eggs have been found at such early and late dates thatthis seems to be indicated.Plumages.?I have not seen the natal down. Dr. Walkinshaw(1935) describes some very young birds as follows
:
The young have legs and bill pink, the latter a little darker near the tip ofthe maxilla. The young when they leave the nest are from 55 to 70 mm. inlength. The top of the head on one specimen of 58 mm. in length, had nostripes, being dark brown changing to a lighter brown on the forehead. Theback, rump and upper tail coverts were uniform hair brown, the wings a deeperbrown, and the breast very similar but a little lighter, than that of the adult.The tail was 10 mm. in length, hair brown with one black band about two mm.in width at the tip. A bird 66 mm. in length had the coloration much the same,but there were indications of black on the wings and nape. In a bird 69 mm.long the head was colored the same, but the wings were barred with blackish andtipped with brown, and the back was barred with black. The breast on thesides was much more bnffy and had a distinct band near the throat. The billswere decurved in these young birds.
270 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDr. Dwight's (1900) description of what is probably an older birddiffers but slightly : "Above, dull black on the pileum and back, thenape, sepia, the rump and upper tail coverts russet ; streaked anteriorlywith white, barred on the rump and wings with black, white and cin-namon, palest on the primaries; the tail drab, mottled rather thanbarred with black. Below, including sides of the head, ochraceousbuff palest on the chin and throat and washed strongly on the sides,flanks and crissum with cinnamon, the feathers whitish centrally andterminally."He says that the first winter plumage is "acquired by a partial post-juvenal molt beginning about the middle of August which involvesthe body plumage and wing coverts, probably the tertiaries, but notthe rest of the wings nor the tail." This plumage he describes as
"similar to the previous plumage, the forehead largely sepia-brownand conspicuous white stripes on the crown. Below, the ochraceouswash is deeper including a pectoral band and a few black and whitebars occur on the flanks. The tertiaries are distinctly black, edgedand barred with white, russet bordered."This plumage is practically indistinguishable from the winter plum-age of the adult. The prenuptial molt of both adults and young isnearly or quite complete. Dr. Dwight says that this is proved bybirds taken in Texas on April 15. "Limited material indicates thatonly a few of the outer primaries are renewed in some cases." Dr.Stone (1896) says: "There is a complete spring molt of the bodyfeathers in this bird as shown in a series taken at Tarpon Springs,Fla., April 15th." Dr. Sutton (1940) took one of these wrens insouthern San Luis Potosi, Mexico, on April 18, that was "in the midstof a molt involving head- and body-plumage." And he saw another,taken March 22, in Tamaulipas, Mexico, in which the rectrices weremolting. Both year-old birds and adults have a complete postnuptialmolt mainly in August. The fresh autumn plumage is more richlycolored than the spring plumage and sometimes shows a few duskybars on the flanks. The sexes are alike in all plumages.Food.?No very extensive study of the food of the short-billed marshwren seems to have been made. Dr. Walkinshaw (1935) says that thefood consists of insects. "They have been observed to feed the young,with moths, spiders, mosquitoes, flies, grasshoppers, and bugs." Ar-thur H. Howell (1932) says: "Examination of 34 stomachs of thisWren from Florida showed its food to consist wholly of insects andspiders. The insects taken included ants, bugs, weevils, ladybirdbeetles, moths, caterpillars, locusts, crickets, and grasshoppers."Behavior.?This tiny wren, one of the smallest of the family, is alsoone of the shiest, most retiring, and elusive. As we pass some likelymeadow we may recognize its characteristic, chattering little song andperhaps see the male perched on some small bush in or near a marsh, or
SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN 271on the swaying top of a tall sedge or reed, singing to his hidden mate.If we approach for a closer look he dives into the nearest and thickestcover, and we may not see him again. His cousin, the longbill, mightbe prompted by curiosity to come sneaking through the cover of thecattails to have a sly look at us ; but not so the little shortbill ; his oneglimpse was enough and he was interested only in keeping out of sight,and so off he goes, creeping mouselike through the dense grass. Hismate is even more shy about her nest; only once have I succeeded insurprising her at home ; then she dove like a flash into the grass anddisappeared, but I heard her scolding notes as she moved about in thesurrounding cover. Mr. Mousley (1934) succeeded in photogTaphingthe female at the nest, to which she returned within 20 minutes after hehad beaten down the grasses in front of the nest and placed his cameraonly about 2 feet away. He writes : "As showing her apparent disre-gard of the camera she on one occasion perched on a leg of the tripod.* * * At times it was only the song of the male that gave me anyindication that his partner was near the nest, whilst at others I wasmore fortunate in observing her approach, as she flew just above the topof the herbage suddenly flopping down into it at some distance fromthe nest, when all trace of her would be lost until the actions of theyoung made me aware that she had arrived in the near vicinity of thenest, but where she would actually appear was another matter."If the male is flushed in the open marsh, which is not a difficultmatter, he goes flying off close to the tops of the sedges with a straight,even, slow flight, looking like a tiny ball of feathers propelled withrapid beats of his little wings, and then suddenly drops down into thecover.Voice.?Over 40 years ago I wrote in my notes that the song of theshort-billed marsh wren is a chattering trill, resembling the sound madeby striking two sticks very rapidly together ; it suggests the song of thelongbill but is fainter and lacks the musical, bubbling notes of thelatter's song. Some others have suggested that the song sounds likestriking small pebbles together or rattling a bag of marbles, not baddescriptions.The song has been expressed in syllables, more or less differently byvarious observers. Ora W. Knight (1908) writes the full-lengthcharacteristic song as "chip?chip?chip?chip, chip-chip-chip-chir-r-r-r-r-r" ; it reminded him of the song of the pallid wren tit ; though
"different in timbre, * * * harsh and lacking the bell like reso-nance of the Wren Tit's song it was uttered with the same accentuationand syllaballization." Ernest T. Seton (1890) writes the same song as
^^chap chap?chap-chap, chap, chap, chap p-p-p-r-r-r^ In both ofthese cases the first four syllables are given deliberately, with pausesbetween them and on a lower key than the rest of the song, which runsoff in a rapid, diminuendo trill.
272 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMRalph Hoffmann (1904) says: "While the song of the Long-billedMarsh Wren resembles the House Wren's in its volubility, that of theShort-billed Marsh Wren suggests rather some species of sparrow. Itmay be represented by the syllables tsip tsip tsip tsipper tsipper tsipper^the first two or three notes staccato, the rest running rapidly down thescale. The call note is like the opening note of the song."The song reminded Dr. Sutton (1928) "of the insect-like perform-ance of the Dickcissel, particularly the latter portion of the song.This song might be written 'Dick, putt, jik, plick, chick-chick-chick.' "And Bagg and Eliot (1937) write it ^Hsick, zwick, diddle-diddle-diddUrAs to the length of the song period. Dr. Walkinshaw (1935) writes
:
With us the Short-bill sings from the time of arrival in the spring until thedeparture for the south in the fall. During the months of April, May, June, andJuly it sings almost continuously during the hours of daylight. During August,when many of our birds are extremely quiet, this species is still a persistentsinger and even in September and October I have heard its repeated song atcertain times of day.Of the pair which nested directly back of our house in 1933, the male washeard to sing not only during the day but at nearly all hours of night. Duringthe months of May, June, July, and August I heard this male sing at varioustimes; from 11:30 P. M. until 2:00 a. m., and until daylight. Then he wouldsing all day long until 9 :30 p. m. but from 9 :30 to 11 :30 p. m. I never heardhim sing. Sometimes between the hours of 2 and 5 a. m. he would sing aspersistently as during the hours of daylight.He usually sang the song once, then paused a few seconds before repeating.During the height of the nesting season he would sing once every five secondsfor a period of several minutes. Many times when he was timed, he sang twelvetimes a minute, while at others he would only sing six or eight times. AfterAugust 10 this bird did not sing nearly as often but he continued to sing earlyin the morning and late in the evening until he left on October 5. This Wrenhad favorite perches from which he would sing, two on willows, another on awire fence which was about 1000 yards from the nest. The two willows, how-ever, were only about 25 feet distant.He says there is some variation in the song and writes the full, longsong as "chap-chap-churr-churr-chur-r-r-chap-chur-chur-r." Theusual song, quickly repeated, is merely the first part of the above.
"After the season had progressed into the months of August andSeptember this became much less forceful and the opening became,
'Sit-sit-sit-churr-chur-r-r,' or 'Sit-sit-sit-sit-t-t.' " He gives thescolding notes as "Churr-churr" and "Chap-churr."Aretas A. Saunders writes to me: "The song of this bird is un-mistakable when known because of its peculiar quality, not like thatof any other bird I know. It is not musical or guttural, but the pitchof the notes can be determined in spite of this. It begins with two tofive short notes, sounding like 'tip', and ends with a trill or a seriesof rapid notes all on one pitch, and one to three tones lower than thefirst notes. When the first notes are two or three in number they are
SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN 273likely to be all on the same pitch, and in even time, like the beginningof a song sparrow's song. Then the song is a simple 'tip-tip-tip-trrrrrr'. But when there are four or five notes there is likely to be achange in pitch, or a pause after the first note, giving a result like
'tip tip - tap - trrrrrr'. The trill usually ends the song, butthere is sometimes a still lower terminal note, making it end 'trrrrr-tup'. The pitch of my records varies just an octave, from C " ' toC " ", but no one song I have recorded covers a whole octave. Thelengths of songs in my records vary from 1% to 2% seconds."Francis H. Allen watched one at close range, as he sang, and says(MS.) : "When he uttered the first notes of his song he raised his tail,sometimes perpendicular to his back or even pointing forward, some-times not so far, and sometimes hardly at all. With the last notesof the song, the tail would go back to a position about horizontal withthe body. Often, though not always, it was jerked in time to thenotes, that is a couple of emphatic jerks at its highest point, simul-taneous with the two emphatic opening notes of the song, and then aquavering fall with the closing trill."FaU.?Mr. Saunders's observations in Connecticut indicate thatthe fall migration begins early. He found birds singing in Augustin a place where he "was very sure no such bird had been the previousMay and June, a tall grass area back of the salt marshes near FairfieldBeach. On July 26, 1941, 1 found a bird singing in a similar localityback of the beach, a place I passed or visited frequently throughoutthe year. In the next few days I found several birds in this generalvicinity, and by August 9 the birds were abundant all through the grassareas back of the beach, and I heard the song in many different places.The birds continued abundant all through August but began to de-crease early in September, and the last one was found September 20.Evidently fall migration can begin in July, at least in some years."Field marks.?As the short-billed marsh wren is oftener heard thanseen, its peculiar and quite characteristic song is the best means ofidentification. Its haunts are different from those of the long-billedmarsh wren, and it is almost never seen in the cattail swamps. If onecan get a good look at it, which is not easy, it can be distinguishedfrom the long-billed species by the streaked crown and by the absenceof the white line over the eye and the absence of the black back patch.The shorter bill is not very conspicuous in life.
'Winter.?The 1931 Check-list does not extend the winter range ofthis wren beyond the southern border of the United States, but Dr.Sutton (1940) took one and heard others on April 18, 1939, in south-ern San Luis Potosi, Mexico; he also saw one in the American Mu-seum of Natural History that was taken in Tamaulipas on March 22,lf^88. Probably the species winters regularly in at least noithernMexico.
274 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWe found it common on various grassy meadows and prairies indifferent parts of Plorida and collected specimens. Mr. Howell (1932)says of its haunts : "The Short-billed Marsh Wren, during the winterseason in Florida, is found in marshes, both fresh and salt, and inold fields or prairies where there is a growth of dense, matted grassor weeds. The birds remain hidden in the vegetation most of the time,but are easily flushed by walking toward them, when they fly weaklyfor a short distance and drop again into the grass. At times I haveheard them chattering in the marsh grass, or rarely singing a little."About Tarpon Springs, W. E. D. Scott (1890) has "taken the birdsin both salt and fresh water marshes, though marshes of sedge grasswhere the water is brackish and the sedge not very high nor denseseem to be preferred." Wayne (1910) says that, in South Carolina,
"it inhabits freshwater marshes and fields which are covered withbroom grass, rarely, if ever, resorting to the salt marshes. Thecentre of abundance is on the rice plantations, where it is exceedinglyabundant during the autumn, winter, and spring months."Frederick V. Hebard writes to me : "The number of this abundantspecies to be recorded in the broomsedge fields and flats of south-eastern Georgia near dusk on a winter day will only be limited byone's perseverance. Wet winter or dry winter, the 'Joren' is therein great numbers. It chirps its two-noted call ch-chi'p^ frequentlyduring the day and increases it toward dusk to almost choralfrequency." DISTRIBUTIONRange.?The species ranges from Canada south to Tierra delFuego, southern South America, the North American race fromsouthern Canada to northeastern Mexico.Breeding range.?The short-billed marsh wren breeds north tosoutheastern Saskatchewan (Quill Lake) ; southern Manitoba (LakeSt. Martin, Shoal Lake, and Indian Bay, Lake of the Woods) ; centralOntario (Whitefish Lake, Lake Nipissing, and Ottawa) ; southernQuebec (Montreal and Llatley) ; and central Maine (Glenburn andBangor). East to central Maine (Bangor) ; and along the Atlanticcoast to southern Maryland (Ocean City and Point Lookout). Southto southern Maryland (Ocean City and Point Lookout) ; central Ohio(Columbus) ; central Indiana (Indianapolis) ; and central Missouri(St. Louis and Kansas City). West to western Missouri (KansasCity) ; eastern Nebraska (Lincoln and West Point) ; eastern SouthDakota (Vermilion, Sioux Falls, and Petrodie) ; eastern NorthDakota (Napoleon, Devils Lake, and the Turtle Mountains) ; andsoutheastern Saskatchewan (Quill Lake). It has been found breed-ing at Barbourville, Ky., and there are probably other semiisolatedcolonies.
SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN 275Winter range.?In winter the short-billed marsh wren is confined tothe coastal region of southeastern United States and northeastern Mex-ico from North Carolina (Cape Hatteras) south through South Caro-lina and Georgia (Savannah and Macon) to southern Florida (KoyalPahn Hammock) ; west along the Gulf coast to Texas (Austin andBrownsville) ; and south to Tamaulipas (Quijano) and southeasternSan Luis Potosi (Tamazunchale), Mexico.Spring migration.?Late dates of spring departure are : Florida
?
Pensacola, April 25. Georgia?Athens, May 8. North CarolinaRaleigh, May 4. Texas?College Station, April 23. KansasOnaga, May 22.Early dates of spring arrival are: Georgia?Athens, April 10.North Carolina?Chapel Hill, April 28. Pennsylvania?State Col-lege, April 26. New York?Rochester, April 30. MassachusettsWayland, May 2. Ohio?Painesville, May 2. Ontario?London, May9. Indiana?Kendallville, May 1. Michigan?Battle Creek, April30. Illinois?Chicago, April 21. Iowa?Grinnell, April 28. Wis-consin?^Madison, May 1. Minnestoa?Duluth, May 5. KansasManhattan, April 25. South Dakota?Vermilion, May 9. Mani-toba?Aweme, April 29.Fall migration.?Late dates of fall departure are: ManitobaAweme, October 2. South Dakota?Forestburg, October 5. Ne-braska?Lincoln, September 27, Kansas?Lawrence, October 15. Min-nesota?Minneapolis, October 6. Wisconsin?Racine, October 15.Iowa?Keokuk, October 13. Michigan?Detroit, October 2. Illi-nois?Glen Ellyn, October 17. Indiana?Waterloo, October 1. On-tario?Ottawa, October 4. Ohio?Youngstown, September 17. NewYork?Branchport, October 11. Pennsylvania?Carlisle, September20. Massachusetts?Northampton, October 10. Connecticut?Fair-field, October 7. North Carolina?Chapel Hill, October 7.Early dates of fall arrival are : Kansas?Onaga, August 7. TexasCorpus Christi, October 6. North Carolina?Chapel Hill, August 19.Georgia?Athens, August 9. Florida?Fort Myers, September 29.Casual records.?A specimen was taken near Camrose, Alberta, onSeptember 19, 1927; a specimen was collected at Norway House, Mani-toba, on June 20, 1900, that was possibly nesting but no nest wasfound; a specimen was taken at Cheyenne, Wyoming, on April 14,1889 ; a specimen collected 15 miles northeast of Mosca, Colo., in theSan Luis Valley, on October 23, 1907, is the first record from west ofthe mountains ; in North Dakota several were noted in a meadow nearKenmare in July 1913, possibly a breeding colony; near Pungo, Va.,several pairs were noted from May 17 to 20, 1932. Several records inwinter north of the normal range are : a specimen taken at Ann Arbor,Mich., on January 15, 1938 ; a record from Jones Beach, Long Island,
276 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMN. Y., on December 28, 1913 ; and it is reported to occur occasionally inwinter near Philadelphia, Pa.Egg dates.?Massachusetts: 25 records, May 25 to July 29; 13records, June 1 to July 7, indicating the height of the season.New Jersey : 8 records, May 30 to August 20.South Dakota : 2 records, June 9 and June 19.Wisconsin : 10 records, June 1 to August 19.CATHERPES MEXICANUS ALBIFRONS (Girand)WHITE-THROATED WRENHABITSFour races of this species were recognized in the 1931 Check-list,and five were recognized by Ridgway (1904) ; one of these is strictlyMexican ; and recent investigations have indicated that only two formsshould be included in our Check-list. The type race, Catherpes mexi-canus mexicanu^, inhabits the central and southern portions of theMexican Plateau. According to the above authorities, C. m. alhifronsoccupies the northern portion of the Mexican Plateau and extends itsrange into central western Texas, near the mouth of the Pecos River.Recent faunal investigations have extended this range considerably.Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) referred to this race the canyon wrenscollected in the Chisos Mountains in Brewster County ; and Burleighand Lowery (1940) collected a number of specimens of it in theGuadalupe Mountains, close to the New Mexico line. Both of theselocalities are far removed from the mouth of the Pecos River where itempties into the Rio Grande. It seems fair to assume that this willprove to be the breeding form throughout the whole of extremewestern Texas.According to Ridgway (1904) , this subspecies is similar to the typerace in size, with a bill averaging longer, but the coloration is "muchpaler, the general color of upper parts more grayish brown chestnutof abdomen, etc., paler, and black bars on tail averaging narrower."The specimens collected in the Chisos Mountains were taken mainlybetween 5,000 and 6,000 feet elevation, and in the Guadalupe Moun-tains at elevations ranging fi'om 6,000 to 8,000 feet; in the latterlocality this wren "was never known to venture to the foot of themountains."Nesting.?The nesting habits of the white-throated wren are ap-parently not different from those of canyon wrens elsewhere. Thereis a set of four eggs, with the nest, in tlie Thayer collection inCambridge that was taken in Nueva Leon, Mexico, on April 12, 1911,for F. B. Armstrong. It was in a snug corner of a crevice in therock on the perpendicular wall of a canyon, about a hundred feetfrom the base of the cliff. The nest is made of mosses, lichens, and
WHITE-THROATED WREN 277
wool, with a few weed stems and strips of inner bark; and it isprofusely lined with soft plant down and a little wool. In its pres-ent condition it measures about 4 by 41/2 inches in outside and 2 by214 inches in inside diameter; it is about 1% inches high and iscupped to a depth of 1 inch.Eggs.?The eggs in the above set are ovate and slightly glossy.Their ground color is pure white and they are sparingly sprinkled withvery small spots or fine dots of light reddish brown, more thickly dis-tributed near the larger ends. They measure 19.1 by 14.4, 19.3 by 14.1,19.0 by 14.3, and 18.5 by 14.2 millimeters.Plumages.?Ridgwa,j (1904) says that the young of the Mexicanrace are "similar to adults, but upper parts more coarsely vermicu-lated with dusky and with few if any white specks or dots; chest-nut of abdomen, etc., duller, immaculate, or with very indistinctnarrow dusky bars, mostly on flanks."Voice.?The following attractive tribute to the song of the canyonwren by Dr. William Beebe (1905) also refers to the Mexican sub-species :The beautiful little wren-sprites of the bari-anca were the first to waken andsing, and we hardly recognized in them the Mexican Canyon Wrens of tliehouse tops of Guadalajara. Here they were in their native haunts, and theirmarvellous hymn of sweetness rang out frequently in the early morning, re-echoing among the rocky cliffs. We caught the real inspiration of the wildjoyous strain, which was so obscured and fitted so ill with the environmentof the dusty city. It is a silvery dropping song of eight or ten clear sweetnotes, becoming more i>laintive as they descend, and ending in several low,ascending trills. The silvery quality is of marvellous depth and purity, andalthough at times the birds sang with startling loudness from the very ridge-pole of the tent, there was not a trace of harshness or aught save liquid clear-ness. It seemed the very essence of the freshness of dawn in the cool bottomof the canyon. The little singer was not easily detected in the gray light,but at last his tremulous white throat was seen high overhead at tlie entranceof some dripping, mossy crevice in the rocks, his tiny body and wings of darkchocolate hue merging into the background.As the sunlight traveled slowly downward toward us, the notes flowed moreslowly from his throat, until, with the increasing warmth, only a few sleepytones were heard?like the last efforts of the dying katydids at the time of thefirst frost. But the wren himself was far from sleepy. The heat had simplythawed the frozen music from his heart and he now began the serious work ofthe day. * * ?Of all the birds of the barrancas these wrens perhaps won our deepest affection
;
so tiny were they, and yet each morning filling the whole great gorge with theirsweetness. DISTRIBUTIONRange.?^Western United States and Mexico, nonmigratory exceptfor a slight altitudinal movement.The canyon wren ranges north to central southern British Columbia758066?48 19
278 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM(Okanagan Valley north to Naramata) ; Washington (Sheep Moun-tain and Nighthawk) ; Idaho (Lewiston and Salmon Kiver) ; Montana(Billings); and Wyoming (Newcastle). East to Wyoming (New-castle and Laramie) ; Colorado (Boulder,, Golden, Manitou, and west-ern Baca County) ; Oklahoma (Black Mesa near Kenton and WichitaMountains) ; south-central Texas (Austin, Boerne, and San Antonio) ;Tamaulipas (Gomez Farias) ; Veracruz (Chichicaxtle and Jico)
;
Puebla (Puebla and Atlixco) ; and Oaxaca (Cuicatlan and Tehuan-tepec). South to Oaxaca (Tehuantepec and Santo Domingo) andGuerrero (Taxco and Chilpancingo). West to Guerrero (Chilpan-cingo) ; Colima (Rio de Coahuyana) ; Baja California (La Paz LagunaHanson, and Los Goronados Islands) ; California (the coast range asfar north as San Francisco Bay, Escondido, Pasadena, San Jose, Baird,and Mount Shasta) ; Oregon (eastern slope of the Cascades, Ashland,Brownsboro, and the mouth of the Deschutes River) ; Washington(Wishram, Yakima, and Chelan) ; and British Columbia (OkanaganValley).The range as outlined is for the entire species, of which two sub-species or geogi'aphic races are now recognized in the United States.The typical race {C. m. meocicanus) is confined to Mexico; the white-throated wren {C. m. albifrons) occurs from central western Texas,near the mouth of the Pecos River, south over the Mexican Plateau toZacatecas; the canyon wren {C. m. conspersus) occupies the rest of therange in the United States and British Columbia.Casual records.?Two specimens were collected, adult and young,August 2 and 6, 1935, in Spearfish Canyon, S. Dak., the first recordfor the state ; one was seen August 12, 1903 in the canyon of the WhiteRiver, Sioux County, Nebraska, between Glen and Andrews; a speci-men was collected on November 23, 1906, near Cheyenne Wells. Colo.Egg dates.?Arizona : 6 records, April 18 to June 12.California : 68 records, March 28, to July 11 ; 34 records, April 21 toMay 17, indicating the height of the season.Colorado : 2 records, May 8 and June 9.Texas : 20 records, March 4 to June 19 ; 10 records, April 8 to 30.CATHERPES MEXICANUS CONSPERSUS RidgwayCANYON WRENPlates 52, 53HABITSOn April 17, 1922, we drove down from the rough roads of the Cata-lina Mountains, Ariz., and pitched camp in the heart of ApacheCanyon, one of the grandest and most beautiful of the canyons we hadseen. Near our camp the floor of the canyon was broad and fairlysmooth, though stony ; it was watered by a clear mountain stream that
CANYON WREN 279flowed gently over a wide, stony bed ; it was well shaded by giganticand picturesque sycamores and by enormous cottonwoods whose lofty,spreading branches reminded us of our familiar New England elms.A zone-tailed hawk had a nest in one of the cottonwoods and greetedus with anxious cries.Early the next morning we were awakened by the melodious songsof Arizona cardinals and by the Cassin's kingbirds' loud, strikingnotes, "come here, come here," as they flitted about in the big white syca-mores over our heads. Above our camp we found the canyon to beheavily wooded with cottonwoods, sycamores, a variety of oaks, maples,walnuts, and other trees, in which red-tailed and Cooper's hawks hadtheir nests. The sides of the canyons were rough and rocky, in someplaces very steep or even precipitous, and more or less overgrown withhackberries, thorns, mesquites, and mountainmisery, where these andsmall giant cacti could find a foothold. We saw or heard a long listof interesting birds, but the gem of them all was the canyon wren. Itswild, joyous strain of sweet, silvery notes greeted us as we passed somesteep cliffs; they seemed to reverberate from one cliff to another, tofill the whole canyon with delightful melody and to add a fitting charmto the wild surroundings.The above is fairly typical of the haunts of this species, for mostobservers seem to agree it is well named as a dweller on the cliffsor the rocky slopes of the canyons, where it can dodge in and out amongthe numerous cracks, crannies, and dark little caves. But it is notwholly confined to such places and has even adapted itself to livingin human surroundings. George Finlay Simmons (1925) says that,in Texas, it is found about "old rock buildings in towns ; less commonly,about houses and barns." It is "common in and about the city ofAustin, and sings from the chimneytops with the Western Mocking-birds and Texas Long-tailed Wrens." Keferring to this, Mrs. Bailey(1902) remarks that "when they do, what cool, grateful canyon memo-ries they awaken in the midst of the town ! When heard afterwardson their own native canyon cliffs it seems impossible that they couldever sing in a city, their song is so attuned to the wild mountain fast-nesses." W. Leon Dawson (1923) writes : "There is no place forbiddento a Canyon Wren, no rock wall which frights him, no tunnel's mouth,nor intricacy of talus bed. He has no special predilection for the pic-turesque, however, as his name might seem to imply. A brush pileor a heap of old tin cans will do as well as a miner's cabin or an oldMission."This race of the species has by far the widest range of any ot theforms of the species ; and, if we eliminate punctulattbs ^ and poUopfilus,as modern research seems to indicate that we should, conspersics inhab-
1 See Grlnnell and Behle (1935) for reasons why G. m. punctulatus is synonymous withconspersua.
280 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMits all suitable regions in western North America from the easternedge of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific slope, except for therestricted range of alhifrons in Texas. It differs but little fromalhifrons, being paler and smaller.Nesting.?We eventually foimd the nest of the pair we saw inApache Canyon. It was in a small cave at the base of a rock cliff, andalmost inaccessible in a crevice above a little shelf in the roof of thecave. Other nests have been found in similar situations. For ex-ample. Dr. Alexander Wetmore (1920) found a nest in a gulch nearLake Burford, N. Mex., of which he says:The nest was placed on a small shelf of rock in the top of a shallow caveor hollow in a sandstone cliff. This ledge was about 15 feet from the floorof the gulch, and the cave was approximately 3 feet high. * * * The nestmeasured 8 inches across the base and 3 inches tall. The cup containing the eggswas 2^2 inches in diameter and 2 inches deep. The foundation was composedof a dozen or more small twigs upon which were placed moss and masses ofspider webbing with bits of leaves, catkins and bud scales. The nest Uning wascomposed of a heavy felting of sheep's wool, most of it white, though a fewbits of dark brown wool were mixed through it. In addition, in the cavity con-taining the eggs, were a few feathers of Great Horned Owl, Violet-green Swallowand Cassin's Finch.The nest has been said to resemble that of the wood pewee in shapeand appearance, aiid W. E. D. Scott (1888a) says
:
In the Catalinas I took in all half a dozen nests that were built much like thenest of the Phoebe [Sayornis phoebe), the .same thick, heavy walls, rather softand covered with green moss on the outside characterizing the structure, andthe inside cavity not so broad or shallow as in the case of the Phoebe. Thenest is generally placed in some deserted tunnel or cave, and at times in unusedbuildings. It is found more frequently on some projecting ledge or shelf, andrarely in some cranny or hole that will scarcely permit the old birds to enter.The eggs are from four to six in number, and three broods are generally rearedeach season.Mrs. Lila M. Lofberg (1931) has published an interesting accountof a most remarkable nest of this wren, which she studied intensively.She says : "Early last spring the men in the general office of the South-ern California Edison Co, at Big Creek, Fresno County, wonderedwhere all their clips, pins and such were disappearing to, when theydiscovered a pair of Caiion Wrens (Catherpes mexicanus 'punctulatus)were utilizing them in the building of their nest." After the wrens hadleft it, she took the nest home and analyzed the wonderful collectionof varied materials that entered into it ; the energy and industry dis-played by the birds in gathering the materials and building the nestwas hardly exceeded by the patience and painstaking care shown byher in pulling it to pieces. Here is her description of it:The foundation, 4i/^ inches in height and 5 inches square at the base, containedthe following items: 152 twigs and slivers of wood ranging in length from %to 8% inches, with a diameter or breadth of from '^k to V-y inch ; 15 lengths of
CANYON WREN 281
straw, 11/4 to 8^/4 iuches long; 43 pine catkins; 4 pieces of wire insulation ma-terial, Ys to 2^4 inches long ; 14 Supreme paper clips ; 1 Ideal paper clip, 3 inchesin length ; 628 Gem paper clips ; 14 T pins ; 1 2-inch safety pin ; 582 commonpins ; 28 rubber bands ; 1 three-coil spring ; 1 screw top from LePage's glue con-tainer ; 11 steel pen points ; 19 thumb tacks ; 2 small screws ; 11 galvanized cup-head tacks ; 1 carpet tack ; 2 insulation tacks ; 67 rusty nails ; 2 small pieces ofrawhide shoe lace; 1 3-inch darning needle; 69 Star paper fasteners; 3 smallpieces of insulated wire; 27 pieces of wire (5 copper), all short; 1 steel tapetip; 87 matches (three unburnt) ; 4 toothpicks.This grand total of 1,791 countable things, while haphazardly placed washeld firmly by a filling of i/^ pound of the following: Cobwebs, lint, dust, tliread,sawdust, wood shavings, bits of paper, broom straw, twine, rope, plaster board,pine needles, splinters, shreds and pieces of pine bark, and asbestos, shells, andgauzy wings of insects, an air-mail label, horsehair, small pieces of walnut shell,triangle of glass (14 inch base and 1 inch in length), and an Eversharp pencillead.The nest proper was so firmly fastened to the foundation that it was not easyto dislodge. It was 4 x 5^^ inches with an outside depth of 3% inches. It wascomposed of very small pieces of straw, pine needles, string, rope, thread, andtwigs. It was a solid mat made by clever filling of dust, lint, and dog and horsehairs. The upper 2 inches were very soft, made entirely of padding filched frommattresses. Into this was hollowed the cup for the eggs, 2^^ inches across atthe rim and 1% at the bottom, the depth being % of an inch.The nest proper weighed only an ounce, while that of the entire structure was2%6 pounds.Mr. Simmons (1925) says that, in the Austin region of Texas, thecanyon wren nests "rarely, in holes in cedar fence posts, eaves of out-houses and rafters of barns, crevices about rock buildings, cross-bracesunderneath houses and cabins, under cornices of verandas, and inchimneys of uninhabited houses; before abundance of the EuropeanHouse Sparrow, nested in mail boxes as commonly as does the TexasLong-tailed Wren."Mrs. Amelia S. Allen tells me of a nest that "was placed inside acrude lean-to made of rusty oil cans. The rusty red of the wrenmatched exactly the color of the tin."Eggs.?The canyon wren usually lays 5 or 6 eggs to a set, some-times only 4 and rarely more than 6. These vary from ovate to nearlyelliptical-ovate. The ground color is pure, clear white. The eggs areusually very sparingly marked with fine dots of reddish brown, some-times so faintly marked as to appear immaculate; more rarely themarkings are small spots of darker brown, which even more rarelymay be concentrated about the larger end. Apparently they are neveras heavily marked as are other wrens' eggs. The measurements of 50eggs of the canyon wren and the dotted wren combined average 17.9by 13.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure19.8 by 13.7, 17.7 by 14.1, 16.8 by 12.7, and 17.5 by 12.6 millimeters.These were selected at random from the large series in the UnitedStates National Museum.Behavior.?Grinnell and Storer ( 1924) mention the following items
282 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthat are not recorded under the other subspecies: "Like the RockWren, the Canon Wren has acquired a special flatness of body struc-ture, which is an obvious adaptation to allow it passage throughhorizontal crevices. * * * The bird's legs (tarsi) are short andare held at an acute angle with the surface on which it is travelling,so that the body is close to the substratum. At intervals of 2 to 12seconds the hinder parts are slowly raised and then instantaneouslydepressed. So quickly and violently is this done that the whole bodyis drawn into the movement."Young.?Dr. Wetmore (1921) says of a brood of young that he ob-served near Williams, Ariz.
:
On July 8 a female was found feeding young in the canyon south of town. Theyoung, three in number, though not fully fledged, had left the nest and reposedat the bottom of a cleft in the rock in a space 2 inches wide. * * * The laborof caring for them seemed to be left entirely to the female, though the male wasin the vicinity. The female came and went fearlessly carrying food, in the formof brown cricliets with elongated antennae, paying little attention to me as Ipeered in the crevice with my face barely two feet away. After feeding she car-ried away excrement exactly as though the young were in the nest. The youngwere able to climb up and down the steepest rock surfaces with no difficulty what-ever. When placed m the open, they became more alert and after a minute or soclambered away toward shelter. The heat of the sun, though apparently mild,affected them severely so that they panted heavily and closed their eyes seemingalmost overpowered; it is probable that never before had they felt its rays.The call note for food was a faint tsee tsee.Plumages.?I have seen no very young canyon wrens. Young birdsin Juvenal plumage look much like the adults, but the colors are allduller ; there are few if any white spots on the upperparts, which aremore or less mottled or vermiculated with dusky; the rich brown ofthe abdominal region is paler and is immaculate rather than spotted.I have seen birds in this plumage as late as August 17 and 30, but usu-ally the postjuvenal molt of young birds and the postnuptial molt ofadults apparently occurs during the last two weeks of August and thefirst two weeks of September.Food.?No comprehensive study of the food of the canyon wrenseems to have been made. It probably does not differ materially fromthe food of other western wrens, consisting mainly, if not wholly, ofinsects and spiders. Its feeding habits are evidently of no economicimportance in its native wilderness, and, even when living in towns,it apparently does no harm and probably destroys many troublesomeinsects.Behavior.?The canyon wren is usually heard long before it isseen. We hear the loud, ringing song echoing from the walls of thecanyon and scan the rocky cliffs to find the tiny source of such asoul-filling outburst of melody. We catch a glimpse of his gleam-ing white throat before we can make out the outlines of the bird,for the browns of body, wings, and tail blend well into the back-
CANYON WREN 283ground of rocks. At first, as he creeps along some narrow ledge ordodges in and out among the loose rocks and crevices of the cliff, wemay mistake him for a chipmunk or a white-throated mouse, somouselike are his movements. Soon he stops in full view on somesharp prominence or even the crest of the cliff, throws back his head,his silvery throat swells, and out pours the delicious strain; andwe are astonished to connect such a volume of sound with such atiny bird.The frequent outbursts of song are not allowed to interfere withthe serious business of the day; much of the daylight hours mustbe spent in climbing over, under, and around the rocks, searchingin every nook and cranny for hidden insects and spiders. Thewren's feet, with their sharp claws, are well adapted for climbing,even over nearly perpendicular surfaces and over the roofs of smallcaves, much as a brown creeper negotiates the trunks and limbs oftrees. All day long this tireless bundle of feathered energy ex-plores it rocky domain, disappearing from sight and suddenly ap-pearing again at some unexpected spot, jumping or flitting from onerock to another, its eyes ever alert for its tiny prey and its browntail erect, spread or flirted to express its feelings.The canyon wren is not particularly shy, merely somewhat elusiveand busy with its own affairs. About i-anches and houses it is oftenquite unsuspicious and friendly. W. E. D. Scott (1885), writingfrom Arizona, says: "During that portion of the year when welive with doors and windows open (and this is for fully 9 months),the little brown friend with silvery throat is often in the rooms ofthe house, hopping about and searching every 'nook and cranny' forinsect life, and betimes singing as merrily as when on the faces ofthe perpendicular rocks in the canons, which are ever the favoritehunting grounds he delights in." And Howard Lacey (1911), wholived in Kerrville, Tex., says that "for 2 years a pair lived with usin the ranch house and became very tame, hopping about the floorand even singing on the table while we were in the room. Theynested over one of the windows."Voice.?^Many authors have given the voice of the canyon wrenunstinted and well-deserved praise, for its song is one of the best andmost surprising of the many delightful songs of American birds. Nosong is quite like it, and when heard for the first time in the wild anddesolate rocky canyons, to which it is a fitting accompaniment as itechoes from cliff to cliff, it creates an impression that can never beforgotten. No description is adequate to convey this impression tothe reader, but the following quotations will give some idea of it.Mrs. Bailey (1902) writes: "His voice is so powerful that the canyonfairly rings with his song. What joyous notes ! They sound as if hishappiness were so great that he needs must proclaim it. His song
284 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMcomes tripping down the scale growing so fast it seems as if the song-ster could only stop by giving his odd little flourish back up the scaleagain at the end. The ordinary song has seven descending notes, butoften, as if out of pure exurberance of happiness, the wren beginswith a run of grace notes, ending with the same little flourish. Therare character of the song is its rhapsody and the rich vibrant qualitywhich has suggested the name of bugler for him,?and a glorious littlebugler he surely is." Ralph Hoffmann (1927) says: "From the baregrim walls of rock the Canon Wren pours out a cascade of sweet liquidnotes, like the spray of a waterfall in sunshine. The opening notes aresingle staccato notes followed by long-drawn double notes, tsee-i, tsee-i,slower and descending in pitch, ending with still lower too-ee too-eetoo-ee.^^ Mr. Simmons (1925) says that this wren sings from lateFebruary to November in Texas, and describes the call note as "a clear,ringing, rather measured, slightly quickened peupp, peupp, peupp,peupp, peupp, each slightly lower in key and pitch than the last, butnever approaching a trill." Mr. Scott (1885) says that "the femalesings quite as much as the male." Charles F. Batchelder (1885) callsthe commonest winter note "a peculiar, loud, harsh, penetrating cry,not unlike the ordinary cry of the Nighthawk, and can be heard at along distance. Besides this note I one day heard one repeatedly uttera sharp ped-hody, the first syllable being rather prolonged and havingthe principal accent."Field marks.?The most conspicuous field mark of the canyon wrenis the gleaming white throat, which extends well down onto the breastand contrasts strongly with the chestnut-brown abdomen ; this latterfeature will distinguish it at a glance from the rock wren, which issometimes seen in somewhat similar surroundings. The rock wren'stail has a conspicuous black subterminal band and whitish tips, whereasthe tail of the canyon wren has no terminal bands and only a fewnarrow dusky bars. The back of the canyon wren is dotted withwhitish. SALPINCTES OBSOLETUS OBSOLETUS (Say)COMMON ROCK WRENPlates 54, 55HABITSOur northern race of the rock wrens occupies a wide range inwestern North America, from the western edge of the Great Plainsto the Pacific slope, and through much of northern Mexico. Alliedraces occur in Mexico and Central America. Throughout its rangenorth of the Mexican boundary its characters are remarkably stable;there seems to be no reason for attempting to split it into subspecies
;
this is in marked contrast with what has been done with such plastic
COMMON ROCK WREN 285
species as the horned lark and the song sparrow. One reason for thisis that its specialized habitat is remarkably uniform, as to sunshineand shadow and as to aridity and humidity, throughout its \^ide range.An ornithologist is sometimes asked by a beginner where to lookfor birds; the answer is simple, almost anywhere and everywhere,for there are few places on this earth where we may not hope to findsome species of bird. There are, of course, more species of birds andmore individuals in fertile, well-watered temperate and tropical re-gions, but the places that seem to us most forbidding are seldomwholly birdless. The raven survives the long winter night on theicy shores of Greenland; the pipit and the rosy finches retire to thebarren mountaintops to breed above timberline; the desert race ofthe horned lark lives on the bare, sun-baked, sandy plains of the south-western deserts, where not another living thing appears ; and the rockwren makes a living in the hardly less inviting rocky barrens of thebadlands. Probably these birds have been crowded out of more fav-orable environment where competition was too keen and have learnedto adapt themselves to new conditions and make a living where thefood supply is scanty but sufficient for their needs.During the breeding season, and largely at other times of the year,rock wrens confine their activities to bare, open, wind-swept, sunny,rocky surfaces, either steep or gently sloping, in valleys, foothills,or wide canyons, where there are piles of broken rocks or scatteredboulders and generally little or no vegetation. On the open plains ofCochise County, Ariz., we found them in the dry, rocky arroyos andon the open slopes entirely destitute of rocks, where the clayey soil,baker hard by the hot, glaring sun, had been cut into miniature can-yons 6 to 10 feet deep by the heavy rushing torrents of the previousrainy season.Limestone quarries are favorite resorts, and the cliffs and caves ofthe deep>er canyons are sometimes invaded, close to the haunts of thecanyon wrens. Where suitable rocky environment can be found, theyrange upward in the mountains to 8,000 or 10,000 feet. Fred MalleryPackard tells me that, in the Kocky Mountain National Park, Colo.,rock wrens are fairly common summer residents, arriving "at the parkboundaries in mid-April, some continuing their migration to timber-line nesting sites. They nest late in May and in June, the harsh songcontinuing until mid-July, and occasionally it may be heard in August.There may be some vertical wandering in summer, when a few havebeen seen above timberline. The descent from the mountains beginsabout August 20, and by the end of September they have left thepark."Mrs. Bailey (1902) draws the following pen picture of the rockwren in its haunts: ''Salpinctes ! To the worker in the arid regionsof the west this name calls up most grateful memories. On the wind-
286 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMblown rocky stretches where you seem in a bleak world of granite orlava with only rock, rock, everywhere, suddenly, there on a stonebefore you", stands this jolly little wren, looking up at you with a boband a shy, friendly glance. The encounter is as cheering as the sightof a bird at sea, and before such meetings have been repeated manytimes, you love the little wren as you do the barking conies that givelife and a touch of companionship to the barren rock slides of themountains."Nesting.?Two nests that we found in Cochise County, Ariz., werebuilt in holes in the steep, almost perpendicular banks of a littlearroyo that had been cut out like a miniature canyon by runningwater. The holes were not far from the top of the cut-bank and 4 or 5feet from the bottom of the cut, and were exposed by the cutting awayof the soil (pi. 54) ; they were probably made by gophers or someother animal long ago, for the soil w^as baked too hard for the wrensto have excavated them. The holes were about 12 inches deep, andthe nests were placed far back; the entrance to each nest was pavedwith two or three handfuls of small, flat stones, which were alsofound under and behind the nest. The nests were made of grasses,straws, weed stems, and rootlets and were lined with fine grasses,horsehair, and a few feathers.Mrs. Amelia S. Allen writes to me that she found rock wrens nest-ing under similar circumstances near Livermore, Calif., "in an erodedgulch 10 to 12 feet deep. Nests were in the earthen banks of thisgulch with not a rock outcropping in sight. In Corrall Hollow it-self, we found a nest near the top of an earthen cut about 15 feethigh. It was lined with sheep's wool and contained six eggs."Frank C. Willard records several other nests in his Arizona notes.One was in a hole in the wall of an adobe building, 10 feet up ; onewas 2 feet up in a hole in a large conglomerate boulder in a rockygulch, another in a hole in an old stone reservoir, and one was in thetop of a window casing in an adobe wall; the entrances to all theabove nests were paved with stone chij^s, and in one case the pavingwas mixed with bits of wood. He mentions two other nests, one ofwhich was in an old stove and the other in an old table drawer in adeserted house.The nests are often placed in cavities and small crevices under andamong loose rocks ; such nests are usually far out of sight and difficultto find, as the birds give no indication of the exact spot among hun-dreds of possible sites in a large area. Often the birds appear moreunconcerned when the searcher is near the nest than when he is faraway from it. Nearly always the entrance to the nest is paved withsmall, flat stones, and, where these can be seen, the nest may be easilylocated. In some cases there is no room for a paved walk to thenests, or perhaps no necessity for it; but always, so far as I can
COMMON ROCK WREN 287learn, these small stones are used as a foundation for the nest, or aremixed with the material of the nest. In some cases the stone walkextends 8 or 10 inches out from the nest. The stones vary in lengthfrom half an inch to 2 inches or a little more, and it seems remarkablethat the slender bills of the birds are strong enough to carry them,often for a considerable distance. The reasons for this curioushabit, which seems to be so universal, are not well understood. Insome cases the stones are piled up so high at the entrance that only theflattened body of the wren can enter, thus possibly forming a barrierto entering enemies. Or, they may serve as direction marks to helpthe owners to find the home crevice. But neither of these theoriesseems wholly satisfactory ; perhaps some day we may know the answer.The rock wren is, I believe, the only permanently resident land birdon the Farallone Islands, where it seems to breed abundantly amongthe rocks. Milton S. Ray (1904) found about 20 nests there, includingold and new. He says
:
Whether the nest was in a niche in the cliffs, beneath a rock fence, or undera gi'anite ledge cropping out above the surface, it was always placed amongrocks firmly embedded and never amid the loose rocks that lay scattered abouton the top of the ground. * * * By far the most elaborate nest I found wasin the rear of the Stone House ; it ran in the earth among the rocks of a rockfence. A shelf-like stone at the entrance formed a sort of veranda, and this thebirds had literally covered, as well as the main corridor leading to the nest. Inoticed the pavement was equally deep under the nest, and that all the tinynooks and crevices on the way were filled. I carefully counted all the stones andother material in this earthen burrow between the bare granite boulders, andas it was situated 2 feet up in the wall the birds had undoubtedly brought allof them.His list of materials follows: One safetypin, 2 pieces of wire, 2pieces of a pair of scissors, 10 pieces of zinc from old batteries, 2 fishhooks, 2 pieces of glass, 1 piece of leather, 4 copper tacks, 2 pieces oflimestone, 4 pieces of plaster from the walls of the house, 12 pieces ofshingles (some as large as 2 by 3 inches), 9 bits of abalone shells, 20bits of mussel shells, 106 rusty nails, 227 bits of flat rusty iron, 492small granite stones (very regular in size), and 769 bones of rabbits,fish, and birds, as well as the usual nesting material.He continues : "The birds in this case had easy access to all the littlebits of material that accumulate around dwellings; but even then,what a vast amount of patience and labor, as well as perception, itrequired to find and transport the 1,665 listed objects, to say nothingof building the nest itself ! This was composed of the bird's favoritesubstance, excelsior packing, together with a few weeds and grassesand bits of cotton and rabbit fur tucked in decoratively here and there,and measured 5i/4 inches over all, while the cavity was 3 inches acrossby iy2 inches deep." He suggests that lining the passageway andplacing stones under the nest may serve to keep them free from damp-
288 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
ness. He noticed that more stones were used where the nests werebuilt on earthen floors, than when built on rocks, and says that thebirds line the passageway and the nest cavity before the nest is built.Philo W. Smith, Jr. ( 1904) , found 13 nests in an extensive limestonequarry in Texas and says that "where the nests were located at thebottom of the quarry there was no attempt at building a walk, butwhen the nest was situated in a crevice the walk was invariably thereprovided."Eggs.?Five and six eggs are the commonest numbers laid by therock wren, but sometimes as few as four constitute a full set, seven oreight are not rare, and as many as ten have been found in a nest.Ovate is the commonest shape. The ground color is pure, glossy white,and the eggs are sparingly and irregularly sprinkled with fine dotsof reddish brown, "cinnamon-rufous," or "burnt umber." The meas-urements of 50 eggs in the United States National Museum average18.6 by 14.8 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure20.3 by 15.2, 19.6 by 15.7, 15.8, by 14.7, and 18.8 by 13.7 millimeters.Young.?Generally two and perhaps sometimes three broods areraised in a season. As the male has been seen to assist his mate inbuilding the nest, and to feed the female on the nest, it is fair toassume that both parents help in the feeding and care of the young.Plumages.?I have seen no very young rock wrens, but those inJuvenal plumage differ from adults in having the upperparts faintlyand narrowly barred with dusky, instead of streaked, and lackingthe white spots ; the light brown, "vinaceous-cinnamon" rump is im-maculate; and the underparts are whiter than in the adult and un-spotted, with a brownish wash on the flanks and under tail coverts.Dickey and van Rossem (1938) say of the molting of this wren inEl Salvador : "Juveniles taken on the Colinas de Jucuaran as late asSeptember 7 have only just commenced the postjuvenal body molt.Adults from the same locality show the annual molt to commenceabout August 1, and a specimen taken September 7 is in practicallycomplete, fresh, fall plumage. There is no spring molt discerniblein numerous specimens taken between February 26 and March 26,and it seems likely that none normally occurs."I have seen adults molting as early as the first week in July andat other dates during that month ; other adults that I have examinedhave been in worn breeding plumage as late as August 7, and othershad completed the postnuptial molt during the first two weeks inSeptember.Food.?Very little seems to have been published on the food of therock wren, no detailed analysis having been made. Living as it doesin rocky barrens, its food is of little importance to the agriculturalist.Its food probably is much like that of other wrens, consisting mainly
COMMON ROCK WREN 289
of spiders, beetles, and other insects that it finds among the rocks, itis surprising how many insects are to be found even in such unpromis-ing places. R. C. Tate (1925) says that, in Oklahoma, its favoritefood seems to be "earth worms, and grubs from the bark of trees."Junius Henderson (1927) states that Aughey includes the rock wrenamong the birds that feed their young on locusts in Nebraska. Knowl-ton and Harmston (1943) report that, of 74 stomachs of Utah birdsexamined, 30 contained 59 adult grasshoppers and 1 nymph.Behavior.?The sprightly little rock wren adds a delightful sparkof life to the barren rocky landscape where he chooses to make hishome, a tiny bit of cheerful companionship for the lonely travelerand a charming surprise in some unlikely spot. He is a busy, activelittle body, dodging out of sight among the rocks, or perching fora moment on some nearby stone to look us over, for he is not par-ticularly shy. Dr. Oberholser (1921) pictures him very well asfollows
:
If started up from work or rest his quick, jerky flight to the nearest pointof observation preludes a sharp, harsh note of Interrogation and alarm, almoststartling in its suddenness and volume, which degenerates into a prolongedsputtering scold, as the bird works himself into a ridiculous frenzy of voice andof action over what he doubtless regards as a wholly unvparranted and quitereprehensible intrusion. But his is an acquaintance that may well be cultivated,for once we are in his confidence he is found to be more tlian ordinarily interest-ing; he will sing for us, and this performance is by no means monotonous orunattractive; or, confiding in our friendship, he may even lead us to the spotwhere, protected under an overhanging ledge or hidden away in a crevice ofthe rocks, is bis little home. His lot, with several voracious mouths to feed inthis all too barren land, might readily seem to be a hard one, but this is onlyapparent, for the desert yields to the patient toil of this little worker far morethan falls under the gaze of the passing traveler.As we know so little about the roosting habits of birds, the followingnote by R. M. Bond ( 1940) is of interest
:
The night of October 15, 1939, two Rock Wrens (Salpinctes olsoletus) werefound asleep in a shed near some cliffs in southern Alameda County. Thewrens were perched side by side on the rough, vertical side of a mud waspnest {Sceliphron, sp.) which was built on the 4 inch side of a 2 by 4 inch rafter.The position of the wrens was vertical, substantially that of a perching wood-pecker or creeper (Certhia), with the tails jammed against the mud wasp nestfor support and the feet at about mid-breast level, and far enough apart to showthe outer toe on each side when the bird was viewed from behind. It was notpossible to see exactly how the heads were held, but apparently they wereplaced with the beak pointed downward between one wing and the body. Oneof the birds awoke and slipped away in the beam of my flashlight, but the otherdid not stir. I left the birds for about 15 minutes, and returned with anotherobserver. The wakeful bird had returned to its former position and posture, andslipped away again. The heavy sleeper was picked up by hand. It is doubt-ful if the birds could have been reached by any small mammal, because of theposition of the roosting site.
290 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMVoice.?Comments on the musical quality of the rock wren's songvary considerably, but, whether the song be harsh or melodious, it isa delightful surprise when heard for the first time among the dreary,uninhabited rocks, and a cheery note of welcome to the traveler wherehe least expects to find a song bird. By contrast with its surroundingsit is doubly welcome, and perhaps its quality is overrated. Mrs.Bailey (1902) gives it faint praise: "Even his song, which at firsthearing seems the drollest, most un-bird-like of machine-made tink-lings, comes to be greeted as the voice of a friend on the desert, andits quality to seem in harmony with the hard, gritty granites amongwhich he lives." And Mrs. Nice (1931) likewise says: "This absurdlittle dweller on crags and boulders possesses a number of harsh, grat-ing, curious vocalizations which are vastly appropriate to his environ-ment. ^Keree Keree Keree' he says, ^Chair chair chair chair, Deedledeedle deedle deedle, Tur twr tur tur, Keree keree keree trrrrrrrrrr\''''W. L. Dawson (Dawson and Bowles, 1909) , on the other hand, is moreappreciative, and says his song is "one of the sprightliest, most musi-cal, and resonant to be heard in the entire West. The rock-wall makesan admirable sounding-board, and the bird stops midway of what-ever task to sing a hymn of wildest exultation. Whittier, lohittier,whittier, is one of his finest strains ; while Ka-whee, ka-whee, ka-wheeis a sort of challenge which the bird renders in various tempo, andpunctuates with nervous bobs to enforce attention." Kalph Hoffmann(1927) refers to "trills and sweet notes that suggest the perfect tech-nique and joyous vigor of a Mockingbird. The volume is much lessand there is much less variety, ti-ou, ti-ou, ti-ou, ti-ou, is a commonstrain, then perhaps flee flee flee, or cheep-oo cheep-oo cheep-oo, eachstrain definite, and succeeded by another quite distinct with a changeof pitch. The call note, often given with an energetic bob, sounds liketick-earyI might add that, to an easterner, the song sometimes suggests thejoyous spring song of the brown thrasher, with its series of couplets ofdistinct syllables.Field marks.?^The dull, grayish brown of the upperparts of therock wren blends well with its rocky surroundings, but when it fliesaway from the observer and spreads its tail it shows its best field mark;all tail feathers except the central pair are broadly tipped with buffywhite, and above that a subterminal band of black is very conspicuous.The only bird with which it is likely to be compared in a somewhatsimilar environment is the canyon wren, which has a conspicuous white,unspotted throat and a rich chestnut abdomen ; its tail lacks the con-spicuous terminal bands. In the rock wren the underparts are all dullwhite, with dusky spots or streaks on the chest.Enemies.?Rockwell and Wetmore (1914) report that "a young RockWren just old enough to fly was taken by hand because of its weakened
COMMON ROCK WREN 291
condition, and upon examination was found to be infested with largewhite grubs several of which had buried themselves deep into the bird'shead and were gradually sapping its vitality. These grubs were nearlyone half inch in length and were all buried out of sight under the skin."Dr. Walter P. Taylor (1912) observed one "attacking a chipmunkwhich was sitting on a rock, swooping at it in the same way that amockingbird assaults a cat," which suggests that small mammals maytake their toll of eggs or young. And Dr. Friedmann (1934) men-tions several cases where rock wrens have been imposed upon bycowbirds.Winter.?Rock wrens retire to some extent in autumn from theirsummer haunts at the higher altitudes in the mountains as these becomecovered with snow, though they seem reluctant to leave as long as por-tions of their range remain open. Many remain in their rocky re-treats all winter, but some others seek their winter food in more shel-tered brush lands or on open mesas. The rock wren has not yetbecome a dooryard bird, but it sometimes appears in the neighbor-hood of houses and gardens. A. H. Anderson (1934a), writes of sucha case:Here on the outskirts of Tucson, Ariz., it lias been present for the last twowinters around my home. The area is of typical creosote-bush mesa, shadinggradually into the mesquite and catclaw border of Rillito Creek close by. Someof the land is occupied by 1-acre, suburban farm and chicken-ranch tracts.A single Wren seems to have occupied the territory during both winters, thoughseveral times two and three birds were seen. None was seen during the summerof 1933. Usually this individual accompanied the mixed flock of birds thatfrequented the district, Gambel's and Brewer's Sparrows, Cactus Wrens, Palmer'sThrashers, and House Finches.Its curiosity was very pronounced and one could easily regard the bird as tame.Sometimes I could approach as close as 5 feet as it stood bobbing upon a wood-pile,fence-post, or chicken-house. Several times it came through the open house-door,and occasionally it would climb around on the window-sill. It inspected every-thing in the vicinity?houses, automobiles, chicken-houses, and wells.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southwestern Canada to Costa Rica.Breeding range.?The rock wren breeds north to southern BritishColumbia (Cache Creek, Kamloops, and Shuswap) ; southern Alberta(Jasper House, possibly, and Red Deer) ; southeastern Saskatchewan(Cypress Hills, Eastend, and Wood Mountain) ; and North Dakota(Williston and Charlson). East to western North Dakota (Charlsonand Mandan) ; western South Dakota (Pierre, Rosebud, and casuallyto Yankton County) ; central Nebraska (Valentine and Calloway)
;
central Kansas (Rooks Creek and Ellis) ; western Oklahoma (Gates)central Texas (Vernon, Putnam, Kerrville, and San Antonio)through Mexico (Tamaulipas, Veracruz, and Chiapas) ; western
292 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMGuatemala (Quetzaltenanga and San Incas) ; El Salvador (San Josedel Sacare and Volcan de San Miguel) ; and Costa Rica (HaciendaEl Pelon, Guanacaste). South to Costa Rica (Hacienda El Pelon,Guanacaste) . West to Costa Rica ; Guerrero, Mexico (Chilpancingo)
;
Sinaloa (LosLeones and Suratata) ; Baja California (Cape San Lucas,Cedros Island, and Guadalupe Island) ; California (Santa BarbaraIslands and Berkeley) ; east of the Cascades in northern California(Chico and Mount Shasta) ; Oregon (Klamath Lake and The Dalles)
;
Washington (Yakima and Chelan) ; and British Columbia (CacheCreek).Winter range.?The rock wren is resident in the southern part ofits range and in winter is found north to northern California (westslope of Mount Lassen and Death Valley) ; Arizona (Fort Mojave,Grand Canyon, and Fort Verde) ; New Mexico (San Antonio and LasVegas) ; occasionally to southern Colorado (Pueblo) ; and southernTexas (San Angelo, Kerrville, Boerne, and Laredo). There are rec-ords of winter occurrence somewhat north of what may be consideredthe normal range.The entire species as outlined is divided into three races within ourlimits, others occurring in Mexico and Central America. The commonrock wren {S. o. ohsoletus) occurs south to San Luis Potosi, Zaca-tecas, and Baja California ; the San Benito rock wren {S. o. tenuiros-tris) breeds on the San Benito Islands of Baja California; and theGuadalupe rock wren {S. o. guadelowpensis) is found on GuadalupeIsland, Baja California.Spring migration.?Some early dates of spring arrival are : Texas
?
Amarillo, March 21. Nebraska?North Platte, April 22. South Da-kota?^White River, April 18. North Dakota?Charlson, May 10.Saskatchewan?Eastend, May 3. Colorado?Fort Morgan, April 12.Wyoming?Laramie, April 29. Montana?Great Falls, May 5.Utah?Salt Lake County, April 11. Idaho?Pocatello, April 22.Oregon?Klamath Basin, March 28. Washington?^Wallula, March27. British Columbia?Okanagan Landing, April 26.Fall migration.?Some late dates of fall departure are: BritishColumbia?Okanagan Landing, September 29. Washington?Ya-kima, September 13. Oregon?Weston, October 3. Utah?Toquer-ville, October 13. Wyoming?^Laramie, October 21. ColoradoBoulder, October 2. Saskatchewan?Eastend, September 15. NorthDakota?Charlson, October 3. Nebraska?Ashby, September 24.Texas?Somerset, October 19.Casual records.?There are a number of records for the rock wrenbeyond its normal range. In Alberta it was recorded at Edmonton onJune 29, 1898, and at Chippewyan on June 12 and 17, 1914. One wasseen at Dell Rapids, S. Dak., on July 20, 1924; one was seen at Pipe-stone, Minn., on May 13, 1922 ; one was reported at Monguagon, Mich.,
GUADALUPE ROCK WREN 293on October 31, 1910 ; another was observed at Urbana, 111., on May 26,1926. There are several records of its occurrence in Iowa as far east asNational, on September 27, 1914, and one record of its breeding nearSioux City in June 1898. Birds were seen there in other years but noevidence of breeding.Egg dates.?Arizona : 20 records, April 14 to July 16 ; 11 records,May 2 to 30.California : 77 records, February 5 to July 28 ; 47 records, April 3 toMay 15, indicating the height of the season.Kansas : 28 records. May 8 to July 5 ; 14 records. May 12 to June 1.Baja California : 4 records, January 17, March 2 and 4, and April 5.Texas : 3 records, April 15 to June 3.Washington : 4 records, April 6 to May 20.SALPINCTES OBSOLETUS GUADELOUPENSIS Ridffway --.GUADALUPE ROCK WRENHABrrsIn his original description of this subspecies, Mr. Ridgway (1876)says: "The differences exhibited in these insular specimens from thecontinental series are quite slight, but they are so constant as to demandrecognition. As to colors, there is no difference beyond slightly darkershades throughout; the lower parts being soft pinkish cream-colorinstead of creamy-white, the other portions of a darker shade to cor-respond. The differences in proportions are more decided." In hislater work he (1904) describes it as "similar to S. o. obsoletus., butdecidedly darker, wing and tail shorter, bill longer and stouter, andtarsi longer; young with upper parts much darker and more heavilybarred or vermiculated."The Guadalupe wren is confined to the island by that name off thewest coast of Baja California. Walter E. Bryant (1887) says that
"this species, undoubtedly the most common of the birds on the island,was distributed from the beach to the summit, but was found to bemost numerous on the upper and central portions.''Nesting.?We are indebted to Mr. Bryant (1887) for practically allwe know about this wren. On its nesting activities, he writes
:
The weather does not seem to be taken into consideration by any of the residentspecies. The rock-wrens are the first to begin nesting, and endeavor to conducttheir domestic affairs through tlie stormiest times, though not always with suc-cess. Many abandoned nests were found, some with and some without eggs,deserted, probably on account of long continued wet weather. The location ofthe nest, however, plays an all-important part in the success or failure of thefirst builders. A few birds began the construction of their nests in December,and one had her work nearly completed on the 25th of December, 1885. Fourfresh eggs were found in it on January 17th. The breeding season, strictlyspeaking, extends from the middle of January through the month of March.758066?48 20
294 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMNests were found in cavities of immense boulders, under roclis, in fallen anddecayed trunks of cypress trees, the latter location being apparently a favoriteone. But wherever the nests were located the passages leading to them were,with one or two exceptions, paved with flat pebbles ranging in size from a Limabean to a half dollar. Fully a quart of these pebbles were removed from theentrance to a nest built in a boulder at a height of 4 feet, where, at some previoustime, other birds had evidently built and accumulated their share of the pave-ment. As a rule scarcely an ordinary handful of stones are used. The nest isbuilt in close conformity to the size and shape of the cavity which it occupies,being usually circular and varying from a shallow bed of fine dry grasses to anest of the same material measuring 100 mm. in diameter and GO mm. high. Theegg receptacle is from 55 mm. 70 mm. in diameter, and not more than 30 mm. indepth. A lining of goat hair when obtainable is invariably used. I followedone bird fully an hundred yards from the spot where she had collected some goathair before the nest was reached.Eggs.?According to Mr, Bryant, "the eggs are usually 4, thoughsometimes 5 in number, and resemble both in color and shape those ofthe common rock wren." He gives the measurements of two sets andsays that the average of 55 eggs is 19 by 14 millimeters. I have themeasurements of 30 eggs, among which the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 21.0 by 15.0, 20.0 by 16.0, 17.0 by 14.0, and 18.4 by13.3 millimeters.Plumages.?Mr. Bryant (1887) describes two stages of immatureplumages. One which he designates as in "first plumage," evidentlya nestling, taken January 23, he says is "above lighter than the im-mature specimen and grayer than the adult plumage. Below, includ-ing throat, pale sulphurous white, becoming pinkish on sides, andcrissum, which is unmarked." The other, evidently an older bird,taken February 19, is "above similar to adult but much darker, * * *the bars across middle tail-feathers dull black. The outer half ofthe pale cinnamon on end of tail-feathers finely mottled with dusky.Under parts pale pinkish cinnamon; the entire throat obscured witha faint dusky suffusion. Crissum darker than abdomen and un-marked."Food.?Mr. Ridgway (1876) says that they "frequent the slaughter-yards, where goats are killed, to glean insects from the drying bones."And Mr. Bryant (1887) said: "Their food consisted mainly of cater-pillars and beetles. I watched one pick to pieces and devour succes-sively three small Carabide beetles."Behavior.?Mr. Bryant (1887) writes:They were by nature tamer than any birds I ever met with. While retreating,if approached, they would in turn draw quite near to a person who remainedperfectly quiet. Sitting down one afternoon upon a log, I saw a Rock Wren comehopping closer and closer to where I was resting, until at length he perched uponmy shoe. Then seeing a sandy spot just beyond, he availed himself of theopportunity by taking a dust-bath. So close was he to me that I could havereached him with my foot, yet constantly in motion, searching here and thereamong the rocks for food, he seemed entirely unconscious of my presence. Even
SAN BENITO ROCK WREN 295
when standing, they are seldom quiet, a nervous twitch of the tail or toss of thehead bearing witness to the incessant activity so characteristic of these littlecreatures.Voice.?Of the voice Mr. Bryant (1887) writes : "Seldom silent, theyhave, in addition to their ringing call, a considerable variety of song.I became accustomed to the variations of four or five different birds,and noticed that each had a song peculiar to himself but differing fromthe songs of his fellows. One little wren near camp was in the habit ofbeginning his song each morning at about half-past six, never varyingfive minutes from his self-appointed time. They are usually seenon the ground or upon a rock or stump. One remarkably foggy morn-ing, I noticed one sitting on the top of a sage-bush, while on fine days,I have seen them mounted to the height of 20 feet on a dry cypresstwig, singing their cheerful song."SALPINCTES OBSOLETUS TENUIROSTRIS van RossemSAN BENITO ROCK WRENAdriaan J. van Rossem (1943) discovered that the rock wren ofthe San Benito Islands, off the coast of Baja California, Mexico, hasa longer bill than the familiar northern type race and gave the abovename to the island bird. He says that it is "not distinguishable incolor or pattern of tail markings from Salpinctes obsoletus obsoletus.Bill very much longer than that of obsoletus, but at the same timedistinctly more slender in both vertical and lateral profiles."The "very much longer" bill is a matter of about 3 millimeters onthe averaffe; he gives the measurements for 24 obsoletus as rangingfrom 16.5 to 20.0 and averaging 17.7 millimeters; and for 10 tenuiros-tris as ranging from 19.7 to 22.1 and averaging 20.9 millimeters ; themeasurements seem to overlap slightly.Family MIMIDAE: Mockingbirds and ThrashersMIMUS POLYGLOTTOS POLYGLOTTOS (Linnaeus)EASTERN MOCKINGBIRDPlates 56-58CONTBIBUTED BY AlEXANDEB SpBUNT, Jb.HABITSIf Mark Catesby had accomplished nothing else in his pioneer workof ornithological discovery in Carolina over 200 years ago but intro-duce the mockingbird to science it would have been a fitting memorial.Had Linnaeus been capable of slang, he might have expressed theopinion, when receiving Catesby's notes on the species, that the collec-tor "had something there !" Truly, that field worker of other days did
296 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhave something when he heard his first mockingbird, and from hisfar-off day to this the bird has held primary affection in the minds ofthousands who thrill to its matchless ability of song.Audubon expatiated upon the advisability of hearing the mockeronly amid the magnolias of Louisiana. Since he knew Carolina later,a native of the latter State would have expected Audubon to changethat setting, but doubtless he never found time to rewrite his history ofthe bird ! Seriously, however, everything in his opening paragraphson this species, in which he dilates upon the botanical glories of thePelican State, could have been written with equal accuracy of theCarolina Low Country. Charleston, the center of that favored region,and the mockingbird are inseparable, for that is where it was first seenand made known to science by an ornithologist.Linnaeus described the bird from notes furnished by Mark Catesbyon what the latter called the "Mock-Bird of Carolina" and whose ownaccount of the species appears in his "Natural History of Carolina,Florida and the Bahama Islands," published in 1731, and accompaniedby a drawing. Carolinians, then, have a proprietary interest in themockingbird. Actually it occurs much farther afield, of course, but atthe same time, wherever the name is mentioned, the hearer inevitablythinks of the South as the typical habitat.Surely, this is as it should be. Can anyone visualize the gray-cladaristocrat amid snow and ice, amid spruces and hemlocks, or upon cliffsbattered by the might of the north Atlantic? Can one visualize it,indeed, without mental pictures of moss-bannered live oaks or toweringmagnolias, where the yellow jessamine climbs aloft to burst in goldenglory among the pines and cypresses and the immaculate disks ofCherokee roses reflect the moonlight ? Here, along coasts fringed withsemitropical jungles of barrier islands, where the slow heave of rollersout of the Gulf Stream thunders softly upon yielding sands, is themocker's home. Here, amid the crimson clusters of cassina and hollythe mocker lives, or is equally at home in a moon-drenched old citywhose garden walls and graceful spires reflect the golden civilization ofa vanished era. Yes, to Charlestonians and other Carolinians, theentire scope of ornithology might be summed up and typified in asingle species, and that species . . . the mockingbird
!
Spring.?Almost universally considered a southern bird, the mockerhas undoubtedly been increasing its range northward and westwardin recent years. It is now well known in New England and as farwest as Knox County, 111., and parts of Iowa (Monroe County). Pos-sibly this spreading population might be considered as an "overflow"from the normal range, somewhat like certain other species that haveapparently thrived upon the march of civilization and increased ratherthan decreased in numbers. While most mockingbird populations inthe South appear to be largely stable (the writer is unable, for in-
EASTERN MOCKINGBIRD 297
stance, to note any annual shifting of numbers in South Carolina),certain concentrations in parts of the southern range indicate thatthere may be a short migration in fall and an early return in spring.In Florida, where the bird is abundant the year round, there aretimes when many more are to be seen in certain places in winter thanoccur in summer. This is certainly the case in the Keys, where thewriter has, in winter, noted the mocker in greater abundance than any-where else in the entire South. Through six years of fall and wintertrips in the Keys he has, time and again, been impressed with the pres-ence of the bird on Key Largo. Counting completely at random, hehas seen the bird average seven individuals to a mile along the OverseasHighway for as much as 15 miles. All these, of course, were on con-spicuous perches ; no search was made, for the birds were seen from amoving car.Increasing records from far northern points are evident. Even inMaine the mocker is now beginning to show itself, and winter recordsfrom various parts of New England are not the uncommon events theyonce were. Indeed, in southern New England the mocker is nowresident ( E. H. Forbush, 1929 ) . One of the most remarkable northernoccurrences is that of an individual seen on Mount Desert Island,Maine (Acadia National Park), by Maurice Sullivan (1940) in thewinter of 1940. As an added touch of complete incongruity, an ivorygull {PagopMla alba) was seen at the same time, February 10. Thus,the far north and the deep south were brought together in as strangean avian mixture as perhaps has ever been noted in this country.Definite evidence of some movement on the part of individual birdshas been secured by banding. F. C. Lincoln (1939) lists an instanceof a mocker banded at Haddonfield, N. J., on November 25, 1932, beingfound dead at Shadyside, Md., on May 25, 1935. This was a northerlybanded winter bird found in spring some distance to the southward.Another specimen, banded at Nashville, Tenn., on May 26, 1934, waskilled at Fulton, Miss., on January 29, 1936. This represents a di-rectly westward movement.Frank L. Farley, of Camrose, Alberta, contributes the followingnote : "The nesting of a pair of mockingbirds in central Alberta duringthe summer of 1928 was one of the most remarkable ornithologicaldiscoveries since the country was first opened to settlement. That sea-son a pair of these southern birds nested in the garden of Mr. Mc-Naughton, on the western edge of the town of Didsbury. This isabout 200 miles north of the Montana border and roughly between 50and 60 miles east of the Rockies. The unusual 'find' was publishedin the local paper. The Pioneer^ issue of June 21, 1928. Later thatsummer when returning from a trip I called at Mr. McNaughton'shome to get further particulars, but unfortunately the family wasabsent. However, I talked with neighbors who were familiar with the
298 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
circumstances, and they verified the statements that appeared in thepaper. This is, I believe, the most northerly point at which the mock-ingbird has been recorded on the continent."Courtshi'p.?As might be expected in so individualistic a species asthe mocker, its courtship procedure is a spectacular performance. Atleast, that is what many have taken its characteristic actions to be.These have been described as a "dance" and have been witnessed byhundreds of observers all over the bird's range. It is well describedby Mrs. A. B. Harrington, of Dallas, Tex. (1923), as follows: "Itwas a curious and most interesting performance. The first time theydanced exactly opposite each other. They faced each other about afoot apart, hopped up and down, moving gradually to one side, thenback again, and so on. A second pair began their dance in the sameposition, but first one hopped twice to one side, then the other followedthe first, which hopped again sideways and the other followed, al-ways facing each other, then they moved back in the same manner towhere they started and repeated the performance. After each dancewas finished the birds flew off a short distance in opposite directions."W. M. Tyler (MS.) describes a similar performance witnessed nearLake Okeechobee, Fla., in April 1941. He saw "two mockingbirds inthe roadway standing facing each other, close together, that is, a stepor two apart, with heads and tails held up high and feathers depressedso that the legs looked very long and slim. They made dashes at eachother over and over with tense little darts, the attacked retreating astep or two each time with prim, ballet-dancer-like movements. Theygave the impressions of putting on an act. Finally both flew off, onefollowing the other to a tree near at hand."In these two descriptions the dance terminated in one case by thebirds flying off in opposite directions, while in the other one bird fol-lowed the other. The writer has witnessed this nonuniformity oftermination frequently, one occurring about as often as the other.Many other written descriptions of this dance are available, but allagree so closely that further repetition is without value.Tlie long-accepted belief that the dance is a courtship proceeding ischallenged, however, by Amelia R. Laskey, of Nashville, Tenn. (MS.)
,
who has the following to say about it : "I hope when you write aboutthis interesting bird you will mention the 'dance' which bird bookscontinue to describe as a part of the courtship behavior. However, inthe years since I have been using color bands for sight identificationand have therefore been able to distinguish sexes, this dance has neveroccurred except as a territory boundary-line demonstration, when theoccupants of adjoining territories are defending their respective do-mains. It usually occurs between two males but may take place witha male and a female as participants when each is holding fall andwinter territory. I have never observed a mated pair performing to-
EASTERN MOCKINGBIRD 299gether during the mated season or during the winter season if theyremained together on a conmaon territory. I saw it once in fall be-tween a pair that mated for three consecutive seasons but that separatedand defended individual but adjoining territories in fall and winter.The dance in the latter case seemed to be the severing of family tiesfor that season as they did not trespass on each other's territory. Inspring, when he resumed singing, they used the two areas together."Probably such a statement will be productive of argument. Cer-tainly it is an original belief, but one held by an observer who has putmuch time and study on the species, as her "Fall and Winter Behaviorof Mockingbirds" (193G) will testify. Her "territory boundary-linedemonstration," however, appears never to result in actual combat,which might reasonably be expected on some occasions if an act ofdefense was the basis. It is difficult to see exactly how the tactics em-ployed could be very effective in a combative sense, while it is easyto understand that the display of wings and tail, which accompaniesthe dance, could be an effort to impress a female with the charms ofthe prospective consort. Lack of actual contact in a demonstrationis not, of course, conclusive by any means of the performance's not be-ing a territory defense, but it is suggestive.Nesting.?Domestic duties with the mocker are a serious under-taking and never marked with the slackness characteristic of someavian species. The nest is constructed by both sexes, and usually themale works as hard as the female. The materials used vary consider-ably, being for the most part small dead twigs. Grass and rootletsform the lining. String is frequently used and sometimes skeleton-ized leaves. Cotton is often found in the nest, depending on locality.The completed nest is a rather bulky affair and lasts well ; old nests oftwo or three seasons past still retain their shape to a surprising degree.Some nests are rather small in circumference.The site is almost invariably at low elevations, with the great ma-jority being 3 to 10 feet above ground. The writer cannot recall anynest found by him (and he has seen them literally by the hundred)that was over 20 feet high. Nonetheless, the mocker at times breakscustom and ascends to elevations greater than 25 feet. E. H. Forbush( 1929) , for example, gives the range as "from 1 to 50 feet from ground."In Florida, the mocker occasionally builds in clumps of Spanish moss( Tillandsia usneoides) , such sites being noted by A. H. Howell ( 1932)
.
The writer has never seen an example of such a site in South Carolina,the nest usually occupying a small bush or tree, such as various oaks,or other stiff-twigged growth.The mocker is strongly partial to human habitation as a nesting site.Garden vegetation, vines that climb about porches, shrubbery actuallyagainst a house, and decorative plantings m the yard are often used.It is fairly safe to say that, in parts of the South, the majority of the
300 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMmockingbird population nests in towns or cities. Wild sites alongopen woodland edges, pastures, wood lots, and prairielike stretches,which show occasional bushes or small trees, are situations chosenaway from mankind.Nest-building consumes two days at the minimum, but probably notmany nests are finished in so short a time. This would take prettyconstant and unremitting toil on the part of the birds, but it certainlyhas been done. Incubation, as given by various authorities, differs byseveral days. Thus, Wilson and Bergtold (quoted by Forbush, 1929)give 14 days; F. L. Burns, 10 days. In coastal South Carolina it isusually between these two estimates, averaging 11 days. Some specificnotes furnished by E. B. Chamberlain are typical of the Charlestonregion. He says that "a 4:-foot-high spiraea bush transplanted to myyard on May 7 had a pair of mockingbirds begin building in it nextmorning. Both sexes built. Completed in 3 days (May 10). Firstegg by 8 a. m. May 11, fourth by the same time on May 14. (Thusnest built and eggs laid within a week.) Three eggs hatched between11 a. m. and 3 p. m. May 25, the fourth between 8 a. m. and 6 p. m. May26. On June 2 (8 a. m.) the young were on the edge of the nest or onnearby twigs. By 6 p. m. the same day all had left the bush, some toreturn occasionally over a period of 2 or 3 days. Thus in 26 days thispair of mockers built their nest and reared a brood to the nest-leavingstage."On the south Atlantic coast the mocker usually begins nesting latein April or early in May. Three broods are often raised. Early andlate extremes of course, occur now and then. About Charleston theearliest nesting on record concerns a nest that must have been startedearly in March. The writer was then connected with the CharlestonMuseum, and a fully fledged young mockingbird was brought to himon April 9, 1928. The bird was at least 10 days old then. If we allowa 12-day incubation period and one day for the laying of each of foureggs (average), March 15 would be the day the first egg was laid.With three days added for nest construction, March 12 results as theday the nest was begun. This is a month earlier than is customaryand probably constitutes the earliest record for the State. Regardinglate nesting, on September 10, 1910, a young bird just out of the nestwas seen being fed by a parent in Charleston by A. S. Sloan. This isa very late date indeed.Nesting in Florida appears to be only slightly earlier than inCarolina. A. H. Howell (1932) gives dates of fresh eggs on March19 at Sebring and quotes F. M. Weston on a nest at Fensacola inwhich the eggs hatched on March 20. Both of these were begun earlyin March, and no doubt occasional birds nest as early as late February.Weston has furnished additional notes (MS.) as follows: "Earliest
EASTERN MOCKINGBIRD 301known nesting at Pensacola, Fla. (Escambia County), March 3, 1932.First egg of a set of three laid this date. This nesting survived a lowtemperature of 23? F. on March 10 and hatched in due time. Latestknown nesting at Pensacola, August 13, 1923 (young birds almostready to leave nest). Lowest known nesting site at Pensacola, a nestcontaining three small young in brush pile on May 24, 1928. Rim ofnest only 18 inches from ground (measured).It is not uncommon to find several mockers' nests in fairly closeproximity. Two and three pairs often nest on an acre of ground. Aninteresting record count is furnished by M. G. Vaiden (MS.) whofound 14 nests on a tract of 22 acres near Rosedale, Miss.A detailed study of a mocker nesting at Dudley, Temi., is given byA. V. Goodpasture of Nashville (1908). He summarizes his observa-tions in a table as follows
:
DaysBuilding 2Laying 4Incubating 10Care of young 5Thus, from start of nest to flight of young was 21 days, exactly 3weeks, being a 5-day variation in the case of the South Carolina birdsnoted by E. B. Chamberlain. In the notes on the Tennessee pair it wasstated that "both sexes labored diligently."Rarely, the mockingbird will use a nesting-box. It is a very uncom-mon procedure, however, and the writer has never seen it, but thehabit must be recognized in any account of its domestic life. Illus-trative of it was a nest found and photographed by H. O. Todd, Jr.(MS.) , on June 9, 1940, near Murfreesboro, Tenn. The box had beenerected for bluebirds but was taken by a pair of mockers and containedfour eggs when found. The box had been placed on top of a fencepost about 6 feet from the ground, and it was the second time thatMr. Todd had seen such a location used.Penetrating into the Midwest one finds the mocker listed as an"uncommon breeder" by B. F. Stiles, of Monona County, Iowa (MS.)
.
He has seen but two nests in that locality, both of these having beenfound at Sergeant Bluff in 1938. H. M. Holland (MS.) relates hisexperience with the mocker in west-central Illinois for 33 years. Hestates that his earliest acquaintance with it was in 1908, when twonests were found in Knox County, which "probably constitute thefirst local breeding records." The next 12 years passed without anymore nests being found. In the early 30's, however, the birds in-creased and several nests were found. The westward spread of themocker apparently dates (as far as his locality is concerned) fromthe late 20's. There is one record already of a bird spending thewinter, and nesting pairs have become "very noticeable."
302 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMAs noted above, the mocker has become an uncommon resident insouthern New Enghmd and, of course, nests there.An instance of bigamy in the mockingbird is reported by AmeliaR. Laskey, of Nashville, Tenn. (MS.) She states that it is "a sur-prising situation in a species where both sexes are strong defendersof territory. A male that occupied one portion of our lot since 1936had a certain mate from February 1938 until her probable death thispast December (1939). She remained in his territory with himthroughout the winter also. In April 1937, while she was incubatingeggs across the road, he acquired another mate. He was seen carryingnesting material for the second nest, 250 feet from the other, andvery close to our house. The male watched both nests, appearingat both just as soon as I went near for observation. The young ofmate No. 1 were several days old and the eggs of No. 2 were due tohatch when the nest was robbed ; the second female then disappeared."Arthur T. Wayne (1910) mentions an apparent instance of a mock-ingbird mating with a brown thrasher {Toxostoma rufum)^ as bothspecies were seen feeding young in the same nest. This strange occur-rence was noted in Charleston County, S. C.Frederick V. Hebard sends us the following notes on the nestingsites chosen by the mockingbird in the Okefinokee : "A decided prefer-ence was shown for the holly {Ilex opaca)^ eight nests being found inthe planted hollies at Camp Cornelia. Four were found in live oaks{Quercus mrginiana), although magnolias {Magnolia grandifolia)
,
in which three were found, seem preferred if present. Other nestswere found in bamboo brier {Smilax sp.) 2; blackberry bushes 2; sawpalmetto {Serenoa repens) 2; waxmyrtle {Myrica cerifera) 1; wateroak {Quercus sp.) 1 ; and unknown deciduous bushes 2. The first broodis usually raised in May and the second by the end of July. Some birdsbuild their nests with incredible rapidity. Layton Burch saw one birdstart and complete her nest on July 9 ; lay her eggs one a day, July 10,11, 12, and 13; and begin incubating on July 15. The first younghatched on July 24, and hatching was completed by the next morning.The young had all left the nest by August 4.Eggs.?[Author's note : The mockingbird lays beautiful eggs, withmuch variation in color and markings. Three to six eggs may consti-tute a set, but four or five is the usual number. The prevailing shapeis ovate, with variations toward short-ovate or elongate-ovate. Theground varies from bluish white or greenish white, through variousshades of bluish green or greenish blue, to some of the richer shades ofblue or green; "Nile blue" is a common shade. Most of the eggs areheavily marked with spots and blotches, more or less evenly dis-tributed, of various shades of brown, such as "hazel," "russet," "tawny,"'or "cinnamon." One very odd ^gg before me is a spotless, very paleblue, except for a dense, solid cap at the larger end of "cinnamon-
EASTERN MOCKINGBIRD 303
rufous" overlaid with a ring of "hazel." Another is heavily cappedwith "Kaiser brown" over "cinnamon-rufous."The measurements of 50 eggs in the United States National Museumaverage 24.3 by 18.3 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 27.4 by 18.8, 25.9 by 19.8, 22.4 by 17.8, and 24.1 by 17.2 milli-meters.]Young.?The incubation period of the mockingbird is variouslystated as from 9 to 12 days, but there is very little definite informationon the subject; it is probably more than 12 days on the average.As we found practically nothing in the literature about the nest lifeof tliis well-known bird, which was quite surprising, Mr. Bent askedMr. Frank W. Braund, of Gulfport, Fla., to make some observationson this point and send us some information. Mr. Braund interestedvarious members of the Gulfport Garden and Bird Club in the subject,and they made a number of observations and reported the results.Following are some extracts from Mr. Braund's report : "Of the eightnests under observation, only two records of the male entering thenest to incubate were recorded, and both of these were for a very shortduration of time. H. R. Myers reports the female leaving the nestand observing the male fly from a nearby singing perch to the nestand squat in the incubating position. The female reappeared in ap-proximately 2 minutes and drove the male from the nest. F. W.Braund observed a female leave her nest. The male, who had beensinging on a nearby perch, flew to the nest and incubated the eggsuntil the female returned 4 minutes later and drove him off. I have,however, observed the nest and eggs unoccupied by either bird forlong periods of time. I do not believe the male makes a practice ofincubating when the female leaves the nest exposed.
"Eobert Fredricks observed a nest on his own property. Whileworking in the vicinity of the nest, located 8 feet up in a Mexicanflamevine, both parent birds would appear with grubs in their billsand perch on a close by wire. As long as he remained in the vicinityof the nest the parents made no effort to feed. Wlien he moved awayfrom the nest, one parent would leaVe the perch and feed, the otherfollowing to feed when the first parent left."F. C. Clayton and Mr. Braund both noted that the young were fedby both sexes ; the latter reports : "I watched for several hours over aperiod of 10 days through 3x glasses both parents feeding the youngin the nest. At times one would be at the nest feeding when the sec-ond parent would appear with food. This latter parent wouldpatiently wait until its mate finished feeding, then fly to the nest todeposit its contribution.
"Robert Fredricks reports observing the parents feeding a greenand brown larva. F. C. Clayton states that the parents follow therake or the cultivator, picking up crickets, grasshoppers, and grubs,
304 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMand carry them to the nest and feed them to the young. Observingthrough 3x glasses I have seen them feed cutworms and cabbage wormsat a ratio of six cabbage worms to one cutworm. I have also observedthem feeding crickets and grasshoppers. The legs are removed fromthe latter two before the insects are carried to the nest. The ampu-tation is performed usually on the alighting perch, which in this casewas a white fence between cottages."The length of time that the young remain in the nest was not soeasily determined, but he obtained two records on this point. Mrs.D. M. Morrison gave him the following data from her notes : "Nestof mockingbird started March 13, 1931. March 25, 2 eggs; March27, 4 eggs ; April 7, first downy young. April 8, 4 downy young ; April21, young left the nest." In this case the nest life of the young was13 days.In 1942, Mr. and Mrs. H. K. Myers and Mr. Braund watched a nestclosely. "This nest contained four eggs, one of which did not hatch.All young hatched between 9 : 00 p. m. on June 6 and 11 : 00 a. m. onJune 7. The young were dry at this latter time. One of the youngleft the nest at 4 : 00 p. m. on June 20, the second at 5 : 00 p. m. onJune 20, and the third at 9 : 00 p. m. on June 20. Deep twilight wasat 9 : 00 p. m., Eastern War Time. Using the 11 : 00 a. m. June 7date would establish the nest-life cycle of these young at 13 days6 hours, 13 days 6 hours, and 13 days 10 hours, respectively."William G. Fargo writes to Mr. Bent from Pass-a-Grille, Fla.,that a pair of mockingbirds, nesting in his seagrape, began incubatingon a set of five eggs during the morning of April 7, and that the eggswere hatched on the morning of April 19, showing an incubationperiod of about 12 days. He never saw any evidence of more than onebird incubating, but Dr. Eugene E. Murphey, of Augusta, Ga., states(MS.) that "he has seen the male relieve the female at the incubationduties, and take his turn at sitting on the eggs."Mr. Braund (MS.) reports the following interesting observation,made at the residence of L. A. Rosier in Gulfport: "On April 19,1942, the nest with four eggs aYid the parent bird incubating werereported by Miss Rosier. We visited the nest daily until April24, when a painter appeared to paint the cottage and the birds aban-doned the nest. The nest was visited each day to April 30. Theadult birds were not seen; the eggs were cold. On May 6 Braundreturned to the nest to collect the abandoned eggs. This revisitationdisclosed a fifth egg in the nest and either the same pair or anotherpair of mockingbirds about the location. On May 7 the nest con-tained six eggs, May 8 seven eggs and a parent bird incubating theeggs at 3 : 00 p. m. This nest was visited each day to May 27, a periodof 19 days, when the parent birds again abandoned the nest. The
EASTERN MOCKINGBIRD 305
nest was watched each day to May 30, when the eggs were collectedand blown. All seven eggs were found infertile."Plumages.?[Author's note : I have not seen the natal down, but Dr.Dwight (1900) desci'ibes it as pale sepia-brown. Unlike most of thefamily, the young mockingbird in juvenal plumage is quite unlike theadult. The upper surface is browner, grayish "sepia" rather thandeep "smoke gray," with indistinct streaks of darker brown on theback; the wings and tail are much like those of the adult, but thegreater wing coverts and secondaries are broadly edged with pale"wood brown"; the most conspicuous difference is on the underparts,where the chest, breast, sides, and flanks are spotted with dusky.A partial postjuvenal molt, which involves the contour plumageand the wing coverts, but not the rest of the wings and tail, takesplace mainly in September. This produces a first winter plumagewhich is practically adult. Adults have a complete postnuptial moltat about the same time, but no spring molt; the nuptial plumage isacquired by wear and is paler and grayer than the fall plumage.]Food.?The diet of the mockingbird is the one phase of its existencethat does not entirely redound to its credit, at least in the opinion ofsome. Until detailed studies were made of its food there was consider-able doubt as to which side of the economic scale was tipped by it. Thewhole question hinged on the bird's fondness for fruit. In the south-ern orange groves and vineyards, much complaint from growers ofcitrus and grapes was directed against the mocker, and many took itinto their own hands to reduce the species about their own particularproperties. It is to be hoped, however, that the grape grower men-tioned by G. C. Taylor (1862) as having killed 1,100 mockingbirds athis place near St. Augustine, Fla., is exceptional. This man wa,s saidto have buried the bodies of that many birds at the roots of hisgrapevines
!
The report of extensive stomach analyses by Prof. F. E. L. Beal(Beal, McAtee, and Kalmbach, 1916) still stands as the most completestudy on record. Recent attempts to obtain more up-to-date informa-tion have proved that there is little, if anything, that can be added toit in the files of the Fish and Wildlife Service. Therefore, for a gen-eral digest of the food habits over the main part of the range the Bealreport is summarized as follows
:
Stomachs of 417 specimens were available for study, and these provedthat 47.81 percent animal matter and 52.19 percent vegetable matterwere consumed. Most of the animal matter is taken in May, amount-ing to 85.44 percent. December and January are the greatest vege-table-consuming months, with 86.55 percent each. The proportionof beetles and grasshoppers appearing in the insect list shows that thebird feeds to a considerable extent on the ground. This habit must
306 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhave been noted by anyone who has watched the bird much, or indeed,even casually. Six stomachs contained nine specimens of the cotton-boll weevil. Ants form 4.48 percent of the animal food and were foundin 75 stomachs, another ground-feeding proof. Bees and wasps com-posed 3 percent. Though only two stomachs contained that notoriouspest the chinch bug, Professor Beal says that "any bird which eats thispest deserves honorable mention." Grasshoppers composed 14.85 per-cent of all animal food and are eaten every month in the year. Cater-pillars were a monthly diet except for October and made up 9.48 per-cent. Among "a ho.st of others" appeared the cotton-leaf wc)rm,spiders, crawfish, sowbugs, and snails. Peculiar items were a fewlizards (3) and a small snake.In the vegetable line wild fruit is the item. It is eaten every monthand totals 42.58 percent, more than four-fifths of all vegetable matter.Maximum consumption occurs in October, amounting to 76.91 percent.Wild fruit was found in 246 stomachs, and 76 contained nothing else.Thirty-five species were identified, and among the most frequentlyeaten were various kinds of holly, smilax, woodbine, blackberry, poke-berry, elderberry, mulberry, and sourgum. Domestic fruit comprisedonly 3.35 percent, the bulk of it being either raspberries or blackberries.Sinpe both of these grow wild in abundance, the berries eaten bymockers "are as apt to be taken from thickets and briar patches as fromgardens." Figs were found occasionally. A few grapes, which mighthave been wild species, were identified. As long as wild fruits areavailable the mocker will probably never do much harm to cultivatedvarieties. Certainly, the above would indicate that the mocker is nota heavy consumer of domestic fruit, as was thought by many. Pro-fessor Beal sums up his account by the statement that "there appearsto be nothing to prove that the Mockingbird eats domestic fruit to aninjurious extent."A. H. Howell (1932) gives some interesting information in regard tothe mocker's diet in Florida. He adds to the berry list above thesumac, poison ivy, Virginia-creeper, red cedar, black alder, and bay-berry, by which last is probably meant the waxmyrtle, as it is abundantin the Southeast and the bayberry is not. He quotes C. J. Maynard(1896), as saying that at Key West mockers eat the fruit of thepricklypear cactus (Opuntia) extensively in fall and winter. H. H.Bailey (1925) says that the fruit of the wild fig and seagrape(Coccolobis) are eaten. He was told by the late Charles TorreySimpson that mockers at Lemon City (near Miami) consume theberries of a nightshade {Solanum seaforthianum) and become in-toxicated therefrom. D. J. Nicholson found the birds feeding onberries of the waxmyrtle {Myrica cerifera) and French mulberry{Callicarpa) as well as those of the cabbage palm {Sabal palmetto).This last is a frequent food item on the South Carolina coast, where the
EASTERN MOCKINGBIRD 307
writer has often seen the mocker as well as numerous other avianspecies indulging on it. The ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis)also often eats the berries of the palmetto
!
Lester W. Smith (MS.) writes that about Sarasota, Fla., he hasfound mockers eating the pods of the yucca, or Spanish bayonet. They
"feed on the upper ripe pods while the lower mass, still green, is un-touched." Miss Clara Bates (1940), of Fort Pierce, Fla., writes that
"like all birds, the Mockingbird is partial to the small red pepper [G.frutescens).''^Behavior.?As individualistic as the mocker is, its actions and be-havior are replete with vigor and vivacity. There seems to be no con-dition under which the bird does not appear keenly alive. One ofits marked traits is its alert defense of territory against all comers,and in this it rivals the kingbird {Tyrajrinus tyrannus) in attackinganything that violates it. At times it seems that a spirit of innatepugnacity prompts attacks, for these are by no means limited to thenesting season, or even winter territorial defense. Encounters amongthemselves are frequent and as many as six, eight, or even more birdswill indulge in a battle royal. The writer once saw a group of 12 inhis yard engaged in a pitched combat of determined proportions, thisbeing the largest avian "mass attack" of which he has knowledge.The spirit of play appears well developed in the mocker also. It issomewhat reminiscent of the duck hawk (Falco 'peregrmus anatwn)in this respect. It seems to delight in bedeviling dogs and cats andputs either to flight. A neighbor of the writer in Charleston main-tained a kennel of hunting dogs for some years, and the mockers ofthe neighborhood would often "dive-bomb" these dogs, plunging uponthem as they slept, or else they roamed about the enclosure and fre-quently drove them to the shelter of the kennels, tails between legs
!
At times they would actually alight on a dog's back and peck savagely.M. G. Vaiden (MS.), of Eosedale, Miss., says that "I have seen themockingbird ride my Belgian shepherd's back more than once, nearthe nesting site, and usually the dogs find some other places to ramblethan those near a mocker's nest." It often attacks snakes also, and aninstance of this is related by Mrs. J. L. Alley (1939), of Tavernier,Fla. She states that she witnessed an attack on a coachwhip snake{Masticophis flagellum) near St. Petersburg in the summer of 1939.The bird repeatedly alighted on the head of the snake and pecked itviciously. The encounter was watched for a considerable time, thesnake finally seeking sanctuary under some bushes.The flight of the mocker is well sustained but appears somewhatlabored at times, particularly in heavy winds, probably on account ofthe long tail. It is often the case that, when alighting on the ground,where it spends much time, the bird elevates its wings and holds themhigh, after the manner of some of the shorebirds, before folding them.
308 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMAlso it will often continue such behavior with a series of opening andclosing the wings, fanning them gently, running a few feet thenstopping abruptly with head high. This may be done as many asfive or six times, the whole performance illustrating the trim, alertcharacter of the bird. Wlien two or three are going through suchactions it reminds one of a sort of avian gymnastic drill. It is thoughtby some that these performances are indulged in to startle unseeninsects into betraying their whereabouts, but this needs more definitestudy and proof than are now available.Though a low-ranging species generally, as regards feeding andnesting, the mocker often selects an elevated perch for singing, or evenresting. Telephone wires, chimney tops, or the top twigs of trees arefrequently used. To watch one atop a tall yucca, outlined against thesky, amid the sand dunes of a barrier beach, or the flaming colors of acity garden, is as characteristic a sight as anything could be in asouthern State. When the bird chooses a chimney for a singing perch,the effect of its song coming down into the rooms below is a most strik-ing auditory experience, muted as it is by perhaps two or more floors offlues. This is often heard on moonlight nights, when it is the moreremarkable.The ready willingness of the mocker to attack anything about itsnest or territory is proverbial. Occasionally, however, it meets amatch in such species as the loggerhead shrike (which it superficiallyresembles). In the files of the Charleston (S. C) Museum are somenotes by Francis M. Weston as follows : "March 3, 1907, St. Andrew'sParish, S. C. Mockingbird chased by Loggerhead." Again, on March17, same year, the same observation was made at 4-Mile House,Charleston County. On the other side of the ledger appear suchnotes from the same observer as : "Dec. 24th, 1906, Pee Dee River, S. C.Mocker chasing Phoebe" and "Dec. 27th, 1906, Pee Dee River, S. C.Mocker chasing Red-bellied Woodpecker." H. R. Sass, of Charles-ton, notes that a mocker was "worrying Robins" in his garden onJanuary 9, 1906.As is the case with several other species the mocker frequentlyattacks its own image in polished, reflecting surfaces. This has beencommented on by numerous observers. M. G. Vaiden (MS.) writes:
"In June 1933, my car was parked at the side door of the residencewhen I observed a mockingbird pecking at the highly polished radi-ator. I scared the bird away and returned to the house; the birdcame back and again started pecking and occasionally striking withwings, whereupon I concluded that it was fighting its shadow (re-flection) in the radiator. This continued for an hour or more untilI moved the car. The next day I noticed the bird doing the same
EASTERN MOCKINGBIRD 309thing and covered the radiator with a towel to prevent any possibledamage to the mocker."A friend of the writer had much the same experience near George-town, S. C, when a mocker made persistent attacks on its own imagein the surface of a car's hubcap. The owner of the car finally cov-ered the cap with moss when he parked it ! A mockingbird livingin the yard of the writer fought itself literally for days in thewindow of the cellar, which was almost on a level with the ground.This is almost certainly a territorial defense action, as the imageis taken by the bird for an intruder on its domain and treatedaccordingly.The immense popularity of the mocker throughout its range hasresulted in its being chosen as State bird by no less than fivecommonwealths
!
Voice.?There is no possibility of doubt that the vocal attain-ments of the mockingbird are its primary characteristic. Its voiceovershadows its every other trait, habit, and even appearance. Rec-ognition of it is evident in both the common and the scientific nameof the species, and neither could be more appropriate. Though itsamazing powers of imitation were not known to Linnaeus exceptsecond-hand, his designation of Mimus folyglottos as its name waswell chosen, for as a "many-tongued mimic" the mockingbird standsalone. Catesby's name of "Mock-bird" is practically the same asits present-day appellation. Some years ago Herbert R. Sass, ofCharleston, S. C, referred to the mockingbird in one of his inimi-table nature articles as "Mimus the Matchless," and it has alwaysseemed to this writer that no more descriptive adjective could beused in connection with it. Truly, that is the word for the mocker.
. . . matchless!It is evident, of course, that there are remarkable performersamong the so-called song birds of this country, and each has enthusi-astic partisans. However, whatever can be said about each one ofthem can be said of the mockingbird, plus. Always plus, because ifgiven the opportunity, the mocker can deliver the song of any otherbird as well as the species itself, plus the fact that it has a wonder-fully beautiful song of its own
!
Ample proofs that the writer is not hopelessly biased in his state*ments regarding the mocker's vocal ability are numerous. Illustra*tive of what others think are quotations that follow. Baird, Brewer,and Ridgway (1874) say:"The vocal powers of the Mockingbird exceed, both in their imi-tative notes and natural song, those of any other species. Theirvoice is full, strong and musical, and capable of an almost endless758066?48 21
310 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
variation in modulation. * * * In force and sweetness the Mock-ing bird will often improve upon the original." A. H. Howell(1932) states that "the song of the Mocker is easily the most promi-nent and best loved of southern bird voices."John Burroughs (1895) is less qualified in his approbation thanthe conservative Howell and joins with Ridgway in enthusiastic praise.He termed the mocker "Our nightingale" and goes on to say that itis "famed mostly for its powers of mimicry, which are truly wonderful,enabling the bird to exactly reproduce and even improve upon thenotes of almost every other species of songster. * * * Here is thelark and the nightingale in one."In connection with the reference to the nightingale, probably themost famous of Old World songsters, an amusing story is even yetrelated in Florida connected with this species and the mocker. Itseems that Edward Bok, who created the well-known Singing Towernear Lake Wales, had several nightingales imported and confinedthere in cages. When the strangers had settled down and had begunto voice their famous song abroad across the orange groves, greatsatisfaction was felt, of course. Before long, however, nightingalesongs were heard all over the surrounding territory! Here, there,and yonder the foreign strains were echoing, but all the captivesremained in their cages. The mockingbirds of the area had takencharge and were broadcasting nightingale melodies over the country-side! It is said that the European performers were put to silenceand soon refused to sing at all. Particularly apropos of this is R. W.Shufeldt's symposium on the mockingbird in Newton's "Dictionaryof Birds," for he says there : "I believe were he successfully introducedinto those countries where the Nightingale flourishes, that princelyperformer might some day wince as he was obliged to listen to hisown most powerful strains poured forth * * * ]yj i\^[g king offeathered mockers." It has happened.The mocker begins its performance at an early age. Amelia R.Laskey (MS.) says that they start "when very young but these songsare very soft-toned, 'whisper' songs that cannot be heard unless oneis very close to the performer. Four young birds under observationstarted singing at the following ages : 30 days, 34, 57, and 73 days."This whisper song is also indulged in by the adult and is an exquisitething?soft, appealing, and infinitely tender in its cadences.Aretas A. Saunders (MS.) says that "the song is long continued,consisting of phrases with pauses between them. The mocker differsfrom the catbird and the brown thrasher in a tendency to repeat aphrase four or five more times in succession, in a richer quality, ingreater frequency of singing, tendency to sing at night, especiallywhen moonlight * * * frequently in fall * * * frequentlyon the wing. The greatest number of different phi-ases I have recorded
EASTERN MOCKINGBIRD 311from one bird is 30, but I have no doubt that it uses many more thanthat."That gifted ornithological writer Edward H. Forbush (1929),speaking as a New Englander, gives the mockingbird one of the finestof tributes when he says that "the Mockingbird stands unrivaled. Heis the king of song. * * * He equals and even excels the wholefeathered choir. He improves upon most of the notes that he re-produces, adding also to his varied repertoire the crowing of chanti-cleer, the cackling of the hen, the barking of the house dog, the squeak-ing of the unoiled wheelbarrow, the postman's whistle. * * * Heeven imitates man's musical inventions."T. Gilbert Pearson (1909) writes that he has "sometimes thoughtthat they must be conscious of the power of their numbers. * * *The bird revels in the glory of his vocal strength, and shouts his ring-ing challenge to the trees, the flowers, the very sky itself. * * *However, it is at night that the Mockingbird is at his best. If heis the music-prince of the grove by day, he is the song-king of the lawnon moonlight nights."It is not surprising that, in such a species, particular individualshave becom^e known for particular powers of rendition and imitation.One of these is mentioned by Frank M. Chapman (1912), a specimenheard by Leverett M. Loomis near Chester, S. C. This mocker imitated32 different birds in a space of 10 minutes. Of it Chapman says,
"This was a phenomenal performance, one I have never heard ap-proached, for in my experience many Mockingbirds have no notesbesides their own, and good mockers are exceptional." In an ob-server and student of the wide knowledge and experience of Dr.Chapman, this seems a strange statement. The writer, during alifetime with the mocker, would observe that there is little, if anydifference in the individual powers of this bird. One is as capable asanother. It would be difficult to assign any reason why this shouldnot be the case. Why would one be especially gifted and another not ?As remarkable as was the performance of the South Carolina speci-men, however, its record has been eclipsed since Dr. Chapman gaveit prominence. E. H. Forbush (1929) quotes W. L. Dawson as sayingthat the latter heard a mockingbird change his tune 87 times in 7 rain-utes and that he was able to recognize 58 of the imitations given ! For-bush had such unqualified belief in the mocker's powers that he says,"Perhaps there is no song-bird * * * that the Mockingbird can-not imitate to perfection."Despite all the foregoing, it would be reprehensible not to mentionthat amazing bird that has come to be known as the Arnold Arbore-tum Mocker, of Boston. It has been written of at length and in greatdetail by C. L. Whittle (1922). In summarizing its astounding vocal
312 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMpowers, it need only be said that Mr. Whittle lists its imitations of 39bird songs, 50 bird calls, and the notes of a frog and a cricket!A. V. Goodpasture, of Nashville, Tenn. ( 1908) , says
:
The most obvious charms of his song, however, are the infinite variety andrange of his round, full, distinct notes, and the rapidity and enthusiasm withwhich he trills his marvelous medley. * * * Four observations of his song,taken at different times, will convey some idea of his performance: (1) In tenminutes he chanjied his song of from one to four notes, forty-six times, and re-peated each from one to nine times?an average of 3.41 times. (2) In threeminutes he changed his song twenty-eiglit times, repeated each from one to ninetimes?average four times. (3) In one minute he changed thirteen times, re-peated from one to nine times?average 6.3 times. (4) In ten minutes hechanged 137 times, repeated from one to twelve times?average 3.18 times.The call notes of the mockingbird have none of the melodious qual-ity of its song; indeed the tone is quite the opposite. There is a grat-ing harshness about them more suggestive of the bird's fighting tem-per than of any quality of musical sweetness. Rendered into words(never satisfactory, of course) the call note has been described as "aharsh, grating 'chair' " by R. Hoffmann ; a "chuck" or "chick" and aharsh, scolding note (almost veery-like) "whee-e-e" by J. A. Farley.A. H. Howell calls it a "harsh chuck."There has doubtless been speculation on the ability of memory onthe part of the mocker in reproducing the songs of other birds. Sincethere is very little in the literature concerning it, the following notesfrom F. M. Weston (MS.) are of extraordinary interest
:
"March, 1912, Charleston, S. C. Mockingbird heard giving 'tucky-tuck' call of summer tanager {Piranga rubra), then tanager song,then call again, showing definite association of those two sounds.Tanager had not yet arrived in spring migration, and recollection wasat least of 6 months' duration."May 25, 1925, Pensacola, Fla. A mockingbird that has been sing-ing in the neighborhood all spring imitates the full song of the fieldsparrow {^Spizella pusilla) more than that of any other species. He isso persistent about it that I can recognize him by that feature of hisperformance. During my 10 years' residence here, I have yet to hearthe song of the field sparrow in this region. That particular mocking-bird has spent some earlier period of his life in some other region, andhis memory is at least eight months long."Field marks.?Even its most ardent admirers could hardly call themockingbird handsome. It is trim, alert, and clean-cut but not strik-ing in plumage and is quite plain in appearance. At rest, the long tailis diagnostic, and the conspicuous white wing patches show to advan-tage in flight and can also be seen while the bird is perched. There isa decided general resemblance to the loggerhead shrike {Lanius ludo-vicianus), which had led to the latter's being known in some localitiesas the "French mockingbird." However, the mocker is a darker gray
EASTERN MOCKINGBIRD 313and lacks the sharply contrasting pattern of the loggerhead, as well asthe black Ime through the eye.Albinism is not rare in mockingbirds, and the writer has seen speci-mens ranging from totality to only a few feathers in wings or tail.A totally albino bird was reported to the writer on May 29, 1940, asoccurring in the grounds of a resident of a Charleston (S. C.) suburbfor several clays. Two or three specimens were brought into theCharleston Museum during the years the writer was connected withtliat institution, and the late A. T. Wayne had at least one specimenin his collection.Enemies.?The mockingbird is probably as free from natural ene-mies as any passerine bird could be. Because of its pugnacious tend-encies it, like the kingbird {Tyrannus tyrannus), takes the offensiverather than the defensive against all avian enemies, although, ofcourse, it would be and sometimes doubtless is a victim of such preda-tory species as the accipitrine hawks.In regard to man it is fortunate in holding a high place in publicsentiment and affection. If a census could be taken regarding the birdmost beloved by the public generally throughout the entire country,the result would probably be a close race between the mockingbirdand the robin. Even the small boy, who must be classed as a predatoryanimal of dangerous proportions at one stage of his development,usually directs his slingshot, airgun, or .22 rifle at some other aviantarget than this general favorite.Years ago the mocker figured largely as a cage bird in many partsof the South at least, but this practice is now all but nonexistent exceptin the most remote regions where the laws governing it are not wellknown. The bird's attacks on fruit orchards and groves are not serious,and few are done away with on such accounts.Dr. Friedmann (1934) cites only two cases in which the mocking-bird has been imposed upon by the cowbird.E. B. Chamberlain (MS.) records a very interesting occurrence thattook place in the yard of his residence near Charleston, S. C. He hadbeen watching the nest of a mockingbird in a small oak, where it wasbuilt near the end of a limb and only 4 feet from the ground. On theafternoon of July 7, 1942, it held four pinfeathered young. As hecame into the yard that afternoon, a Cooper's hawk rose from thenest, bearing one of the young in its claws. It stopped in a largeroak nearby but escaped out of the far side before it could be shot.An hour later there was an outcry from the mockers and on rushingout. Chamberlain saw the hawk making away with a second youngster.I "cut loose," he says, "just for the noise effect as I had no chance tohit the hawk." The next day passed without a repeat visit fromthe hawk, but on the following day (9th) "again I met the spectacle ofthe hawk leaving the nest, the third young in its talons." The adult
314 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMmockers gave chase to the marauder as it flew out over the adjacentmarshes. While at the supper table that same evening, at 7 :45 p. m.,Chamberlain witnessed the return of the hawk and the departure of thelast of the young by "the same well worn route." He then closed theaccount with the statement that "I was interested to note that by 8 : 15p. m. the adult male (?) mocker had recovered enough to burst intosong on a nearby perch. Perhaps he had forgotten the tragedyalready." DISTRIBUTIONRange.?The United States and southern Canada, to southern Mex-ico and the West Indies: generally nonmigratory.The mockingbird occurs with some regularity, generally breeding,north to northern California (Corning and Chico) ; southeasternOregon (an isolated colony in the Blitzen Valley, Harney County) ;southern Nevada (Oasis Valley and Pahranagat Valley) ; southernUtah (St. George and Zion National Park ; occasional or local north toGreat Salt Lake and the Uinta Basin) ; southern and eastern Colorado(Grand Junction, Salida, Denver, and Loveland) ; southeastern Wyo-ming (Laramie and Douglas) ; Nebraska (Sioux County, rare, Gree-ley, and Omaha) ; Iowa (Sioux City and Grinnell) ; northern Illinois(Chicago, rare) ; northern Indiana (Elkhart and Fort Wayne)
;
northern Ohio (Toledo, Sandusky, and Stanhope) ; southwestern andsoutheastern Pennsylvania (Hickory, Finleyville, Harrisburg, andPhiladelphia) ; central New Jersey (Barnegat) ; and sporadically tocentral New York, Massachusetts, and southern Maine. East to theAtlantic coast of the United States, the Bahamas (Abaco and InaguaIslands) ; the Greater Antilles to the Virgin Islands (St. Thomas andSt. Croix). South to the Virgin Islands (St. Croix) ; Hispaniola(Ciudad Trujillo) ; Jamaica (Port Koyal) ; Grand Cayman; Cuba(Isle of Pines) ; the Gulf coast of the United States and Mexico toVeracruz (Orizaba) ; and southern Oaxaca (Santa Efigenia). Westto Oaxaca (Santa Efigenia and Oaxaca) ; Guerrero (Acapulco) ; thePacific coast of Mexico and throughout Baja California (Cape SanLucas, Santa Margarita, and Ensenada; accidental on GuadalupeIsland) ; and the coast of California (including the Santa BarbaraIslands) to the San Francisco Bay region and the Sacramento Valley(Willows and Corning).The above range is for the species as a whole, of which two sub-species or geographic races are recognized in the United States. Theeastern mockingbird {M. p. polyglottos) occurs in the northernBahama Islands and the eastern United States, west to the edge ofthe Plains in eastern Nebraska and Kansas ; the western mockingbird{M. p. leucopterus) is found from western Nebraska and Kansas west-ward and south to Baja California and Oaxaca.
EASTERN MOCKINGBIRD 315Since the law was passed prohibiting the caging of native birds,the mockingbird has increased in numbers and has pushed its normalrange northward. There are also many records of occurrence (oftenin winter) and of breeding far north of what may be considered thenormal range. Some of these records may belong to the "casual"list, but it is difficult to separate them. During the winter of 1922one appeared at Ferndale, Humboldt County, Calif., where it re-mained for several weeks. There are two records for VancouverIsland, British Columbia; one observed at Port Alberni on June 7,1931, and a specimen collected at Duncan, on January 20, 1940. Ap-parently the only record for Alberta is of a pair that nested at Dids-bury in June 1928. One was observed at Piapot, southwestern Sas-katchewan, on May 2, 1927, and a specimen was collected at Eastendon June 4, 1928. In 1934 a nest was reported 35 miles south of Regina,and on May 7, 1936, one was observed in Regina. In Manitoba, thefirst report was from Hillside Beach, in May 1928, and one was ob-served from November 15, 1939, to January 2, 1940, near Winnipeg.The mockingbird has nested in two localities in Ontario?at PointPelee in 1909 and at Nanticoke in 1924?besides which there are anumber of records of its occurrence at all times of the year as farnorth as Ottawa and at Moose Factory on June 4, 1928. It was re-corded at Gaspe, Quebec, on November 5, 1938, and a specimen wastaken on Anticosti Island on August 8, 1902. Three specimens havebeen collected at Grand Manan, New Brunswick, all in fall and winter.A specimen was taken on Sable Island, Nova Scotia, on September3, 1902. Casual records previous to 1900 are usually open to questionas being possibly escaped cage birds.In some sections the mockingbird appears to be migratory, butthere does not seem to be any definite and regular migration. Themovements of mockingbirds seem to be local or individual. Bandingreturns indicate that some individuals travel considerable distances.Introduction.?In 1893, six pairs of eastern mockingbirds were lib-erated in Bermuda, and some were still to be found there in 1914.Egg dates.?Arizona : 52 records, April 12 to August 2 ; 26 records,May 18 to June 15, indicating the height of the season.California: 94 records, February 16 to September 2; 50 records,April 18 to May 21.Florida : 56 records, March 25 to August 12 ; 28 records, April 24to May 21.Georgia: 26 records, April 14 to July 9; 16 records. May 10 toJune 6.Oklahoma : 11 records, May 2 to June 23.Texas : 94 records, March 10 to July 20 ; 48 records. May 2 to 27.
316 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMIMUS POLYGLOTTOS LEUCOPTERUS (Vigors)WESTERN MOCKINGBIRDPlATES 59, 60HABITSThe western mockingbird is a larger bird than its eastern relative,with a relatively shorter tail ; its general coloration is paler, with theunderparts more washed with buffy ; the white at the bases of the pri-maries is more extended and the white tips of the wing coverts arebroader; and the wing feathers are tipped with white; leucopterus isan appropriate name. It was long considered to be a bird of the south-western States and Mexico, but either it has extended its range or wehave extended our knowledge of its distribution during recent years.Even the 1931 Check-list seems to limit its northward range to cen-tral California, southern Wyoming, and northwestern Nebraska.Laurence B. Potter, of Eastend, Saskatchewan, writes to me: "InCanada generally, the mockingbird is considered a rare visitant any-where. This fact makes all the more remarkable the irruption ofmockingbirds into the prairie provinces, with nesting records in Al-berta and Saskatchewan. The first bird was noted in 1927, the lastabout 1937, a period of about ten years. Since then mockingbirdshave appeared on Vancouver Island. P. A. Taverner (1934) saysthat the western mockingbird is probably the one that has wanderedto southern British Columbia, but that "the subspecific identity of theprairie occurrences is doubtful."The western mockingbird is a more or less permanent resident inthe hot Lower Sonoran valleys of the southwestern States, but it re-tires in winter from the northern portions of its range and from thefoothills farther south, where it is common up to 5,000 feet in summer.John G. Tyler (1913) says of its haunts in the Fresno region of Cali-fornia, which are typical : "The writer has observed Mockingbirds ina small orchard surrounding a ranch house, far out on the plains nearWheatville, among the tangle of swamp growths below Riverdale,and along one or two of the creeks that lead down from the foothills
;
but the center of their abundance seems to be the most highly culti-vated and thickly settled tracts in the valley. Orchards, hedgerows,fig-bordered vineyards, and shade trees around dwellings are favoritehaunts of this famous vocalist; and from the tops of windmills, thetopmost branches of trees, or the roofs of buildings, they pour forththeir wonderful repertoire of song." And Ralph Hoffmann (1927)adds : "It is one of the surprises of a bird student on his first visit tothe Coast to see Mockingbirds singing from the chimneys of a hotel,flirting their long tails on the curbing of city streets or pursuing oneanother in and out of city traffic. All they ask are yards about the
WESTERN MOCKINGBIRD 317houses, a bit of lawn to feed on and vines or thick bushes in which tonest."Territory.?Harold and Josephine R. Michener (1935) made anintensive study of the territorial behavior of a number of westernmockingbirds in the immediate vicinity of their home in Pasadena,Calif., covering a period of over a year, from January 1, 1933, toFebruary 15, 1934. Their interesting report covers 44 pages in TheCondor, to which the reader is referred, for space will permit the in-clusion of only a few extracts here. The birds were trapped andmarked with colored bands, for identification. The area under ob-servation is a lot, 100 by 317 feet, within a mile of the center of Pasa-dena and surrounded by the city on all sides.The territories occupied by the five mated pairs varied from ap-proximately 3,750 to 60,000 square feet in an environment that wasespecially favorable ; probably average territories elsewhere are muchlarger. They think that the birds have two general types of terri-tories, summer territories and winter territories
;
The summer and winter territories of an individual or a pair may or may notbe identical areas. The summer territory is the family home, held and defendedby the male and occupied solely by him until the female joins him, unless his mateof the previous year has remained with him.The female rarely takes part in the defense of the summer territory.The winter territory centers about the food supply and is defended by both themale and the female, in case the pair remain together, or by the lone male orfemale occupant. * * * The defense of the winter territories seems muchmore vigorous than that of the summer territories. This may be because theinvaders in the winter are much more numerous than in summer and because theterritory holder has many other things to do in the summer while in winter thedefense of the food supply is the only important activity.The so-called "dance," so well described under the courtship of theeastern mockingbird, and the display, which I refer to below, mayboth be used as part of the boundary defense demonstration, asstrongly suggested by Mrs. Laskey (MS.). I doubt if it is often nec-essary for the birds to enter into actual physical combat ; the demon-stration is generally sufficient warning to the trespasser. Even thesong may be all that is necessary.Courtship.?On April 21, 1929, 1 saw what I believe was a courtshipdisplay. A mockingbird, presumably a male, was running along onour lawn at Pasadena, flirting his spread tail up and down, making asoft cooing sound and occasionally lifting both his wings high abovehis back and spreading them so as to show the conspicuous white areas.At San Diego, on June 21, 1929, Frank F. Gander (1931) saw apair of western mockingbirds in copulation. The female was feedingon the ground under some shrubbery. He says
:
The male was singing from the top of a tall flagpole nearby. Suddenly hedropped from his perch. In full song, he shot down into the shrubbery about
318 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM15 feet beyond the female. As he sped past her, the female crouched a little andbegan to quiver her wings. She continued in this as the male, singing excitedlyand with tail and wings half spread, advanced toward her with dancing steps.As he neared her his excitement grew but his approach was stately and un-hurried. As he came near he seemed to be floating along just over the groundand he rose gradually and settled upon her back. All this time he had been pour-ing forth impassioned melody. The act lasted several seconds and was accom-panied by much fluttering of wings.Nesting.?The western mockingbird will build its nest in almost anyof the many varieties of bushes, small trees, or tangles of vines foundwithin its habitat, including such western plants as sagebushes,pricklypear cactus, or the different chollas. Dense shrubbery or thethickly leaved branches of trees are preferred. The nest may beplaced anywhere from 1 foot to 40 feet above ground, though most ofthem are 6 feet up or less. George F. Simmons (1925) says that, inTexas, the nests are sometimes placed in a hollow in the top of a
"cedar fence post, in brush piles, on stumps, or in corners of railfences." F. W. Braund has sent me the data for seven nests in hiscollection; one was in a vine in an open field, three were in bushes,and three were in chollas ; the heights varied from 3 to 5 feet aboveground. The foundation of the nest is made of coarse and fine twigs,often thorny, mixed with coarse grasses and weed stems; sometimesbits of rags or cotton, string, paper, or other trash are added. Thelining usually consists of fine grasses, but sometimes fine rootlets,horsehair, or plant down is used.Eggs.?The eggs of this western race are indistinguishable in everyway from those of the eastern mockingbird, showing the same rangeof beautiful variations. The measurements of 50 eggs in the UnitedStates National Museum average 24.6 by 18.6 millimeters; the eggsshowing the four extremes measure 27.4 by 19.8, 21.8 by 17.8, and23.4 by 17.3 millimeters.Young.?The period of incubation is said to be 10 to 14 days;probably the latter figure is approximately correct. The young aresaid to remain in the nest 9 to 12 days ; perhaps nearly 2 weeks wouldbe the normal time, if the young are not disturbed. Probably in-cubation is shared by both sexes, but the literature seems to be verysilent on this point and on the care and development of the young.Two broods are regularly raised in a season, and rarely three.As to the care and feeding of the young, Mrs. Wheelock (1904) givesus the only account I can find ; she writes
:
Both male and female Mockers flit through the green like silent shadowshunting insects under the leaves, earthworms on the ground, or berries in thegarden. These are all swallowed first and delivered to the infant Mockers byregurgitation for the first few days, or until the babies' eyes open. After that,the number of earthworms, butterfiies, etc. devoured by those nestlings rivalsthe story of the young robins who in 12 hours ate 40 percent more than theirown weight. There seems to be no limit to their appetite and scarcely any to
WESTERN MOCKINGBIRD 319their capacity. Even after they leave the nest and are nearly as large as theadults, they follow the overworked father about, begging with quivering wings.Food.?Professor Beal (1907) says: "No serious complaints of thebird's depredations in this State [California] have yet been made,but this perhaps is due to the fact that mocking birds are rare insections where cherries and the smaller deciduous fruits are grown.Where mockers are most abundant, citrus fruits are the principal cropand the birds do not appear to molest them."He examined 33 stomachs, taken between July 18 and August 18,which contained 23 percent of animal matter and 77 percent of vege-table. Of the animal food, "beetles of several families formed a littleless than 1 percent. Hymenoptera, largely ants, were eaten to theextent of somewhat more than 10 percent. Grasshoppers constitutedthe largest item of animal food, and amounted to 11 percent of thewhole. A few caterpillars and spiders made up the other 1 percentof the animal food." Most of the vegetable food was fruit, some ofit wild, "but blackberries or raspberries, grapes, and figs were foundin many stomachs. Many of the birds were taken in orchards andgardens, and some were shot in the very act of pilfering blackberries.* * * The only species of wild fruits that were identified wereelderberries, which were found in a few stomachs." Seeds of poisonoak were conspicuous; one stomach was entirely filled with them.Nineteen other stomachs were examined, taken in nine other months
;
they contained much similar material. One, taken in March, containeda lizard; three, taken in September, contained "a few wasps"; theonly useful insect eaten was a carabid beetle.Robert S. Woods has sent me a photograph of a mocker feedingon the fruit of the pricklypear cactus {Opuntia). Mockers will comefreely to feeding stations that are supplied with cultivated or wildfruits and berries. They also eat the berries of the peppertree.Voice.?The behavior and voice of the western mockingbird areso similar to these attributes of its gifted eastern relative that it seemssufficient to say that it is just as marvelous a singer, equally versatile,and just as welcome a visitor to town and rural gardens. Many ob-servers have referred to its versatility as a mimic. Mr. Simmons ( 1925
)
says that, in Texas, it "imitates the excited twittle of the Scissor-tailedFlycatcher, the song of the Wood Thrush, calls of the Roadrunner,the Southern Blue Jay, the Sennett Titmouse, the Chuck-will's-widow,the Howell Nighthawk, and countless others, even the Migrant Shrike,the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, and some of the smaller warblers ; an in-dividual bird frequently has as many as three dozen imitated songs.Utters each imitation two or three times, and then takes up another,which it treats in the same way ; frequently such repetition is the onlything that distinguishes the imitation from the song mimicked."Mr. Sennett (1878) several times heard the screeching call of the
320 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMchachalaca coming from a mocker. Mrs. Bailey (1928) adds the killy-k'llly of the sparrow hawk, the jia-coh of Mearns's woodpecker, and thenotes of the pinyon and Woodhouse's jays, the western kingbirds, thegreen-tailed towhee and the Kocky Mountain nuthatch. Mrs. Nice(1931) includes the yap of the English sparrow, the scold of the robin,the chebec of the least flycatcher, and the notes of the scaled quail,lark sparrow, canyon towhee, Bullock's oriole, western kingbird, andhouse iinch. In addition to those named above, C. H. Richardson, Jr.(1906), lists the following imitations heard in the vicinity of Pasa-dena: Western gull, killdeer, valley partridge, sparrow hawk, Cali-fornia woodpecker, red-shafter flicker, ash-throated flycatcher. Say'sand black phoebes, western wood pewee, western flycatcher, Californiajay, western meadowlark, Arizona hooded oriole, Bullock oriole,Brewer's blackbird, San Diego song sparrow, black-headed grosbeak,western tanager, purple martin, cliff swallow, phainopepla, Californiashrike, western gnatcatcher, dwarf hermit thrush, and western robin.Following are some of the Micheners' (1935) remarks on the songs
:
The males have a set of summer songs and a set of winter songs and somesongs that seem to be the same in both summer and winter. * * * As prob-ably the first indication of revival of activity after the molt, about the middleof September, the males at mid-day from low thick bushes sing a soft, faint,varied and beautiful song having no imitations in it. * * * The femalesare quiet in the summer season. They join in the hew-hew notes and the raspingnotes of the pair in early summer. Beginning about mid-September, as thedepression of the molt wears away, the females sing a soft, faint song which canscarcely be distinguished from the song of the immatures. * * * The youngbirds sing a faint, soft song quite without imitations of other bird songs butdistinctly a mockingbird song. They seem absorbed in the production of songand sing, usually at mid-day, for several days and then disappear. Whilesinging the birds perch in low, thick shrubbery, mounting higher as the daysgo by but never do they sing from tree tops or other such high perches. Atleast some individuals sing before, during, and after the molt.Enemies.?There seems to be no information available on the nat-ural enemies of the western mockingbird, which are probably asnumerous as those of other passerine birds. It has served as host forthe eggs of the dwarf cowbird on several occasions, according to Dr.Friedmann (1934).DUMETELLA CAROLINENSIS (Linnaeus)CATBIRDPlates 61-65HABITSCONTfilBUTED BY ALFRED OttO GkOSSThe catbird is a stable species; throughout its extensive nestingrange from British Columbia to Quebec and south to the Gulf Statesand the Bermuda Islands not a single subspecies has been recognized.
CATBIRD 321Outram Bangs and Thomas S. Bradlee (1901) described the smallerBermuda birds, which have narrow and shorter tail feathers andprimaries as hermudianus^ but this species was never accepted by theA. O. U. committee on nomenclature.It is ahnost universally known as the catbird, but in the south thisrecognized singer and mimic is sometimes locally called the blackmockingbird, and in Bermuda where there are no resident Icteridaethe natives have named it the blackbird. The name catbird thougha misnomer is destined to remain. It probably originated fromsome casual listener who gave ear only to the short, grating, catlikecall and did not hear or was not impressed by its pleasing and variedsong. As a boy the name prejudiced me against this bird until Ilearned to know its true worth and the high place among our nativebirds it now holds in my estimation.Though modestly colored the catbird is exquisitely tailored andalways presents a trim appearance. He is intelligent and friendlyand possesses a lively and restless temperament, ever ready to be help-ful to others of its kind in trouble of any sort, often coming to the aidof distracted parents in the defense of their homes and little ones.He is very playful, full of droll pranks and quaint performances. Heis also an accomplished singer as well as a mimic and possesses manyother admirable qualities that endear him to the bird lover who haslearned to know his interesting personality.Sp^'ing.?In Florida the catbird is an abundant migrant, but it isalso a fairly common winter resident and a few breed in the centraland northern parts of the State. According to A. H. Howell (1932)
,
the spring migration begins very early, as indicated by the record of25 catbirds seen flying north at Sombrero Key on the night of January26. Two others were seen there on January 28. However, the major-ity of the migrants pass through the State about the middle of April,with belated stragglers migrating as late as the first two weeks of May.In Alabama the catbirds appear as migrants at various parts of theState from April 6 to April 19. Likewise in Louisiana and Texas themass of catbird migrants passes through during the first weeks ofApril. They reach Pennsylvania and Ohio about April 27. At CapeMay, N. J., the average date of 18 years of first arrival records madeby Witmer Stone ( 1937) is April 25. The average date of first arrivalsat Minneapolis, Minn. (T. S. Roberts, 1932), is May 5, the earliestApril 27, 1921. In New York, New England, and southern Canadathe catbirds may be expected the first week of May.In general the great bulk of migrants arrive about a week after thefirst birds of the season are seen. The migratory wave of catbirds re-quires about a month in traveling from the southern part of the UnitedStates to the northern and western section of their nesting range.The spring migration northward is regular, and the date of arrival
322 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
varies but little from year to year. Even during times of unseason-ably cold weather the catbird does not seem to halt its movements toawait for warmer days but usually proceeds on schedule.The catbird travels chiefly at night and is so quiet that its greatflights are seldom detected, but on arrival at their breeding groundstheir presence is announced by their delightful songs. Each springduring the first week of May I am awakened by the first catbirdsong from a friendly individual who sings from his perch in thecatalpa tree just outside my window. He seems eager to let us andeveryone else in the neighborhood know that he is here for the season.He also informs his neighbors that the syringa bushes, lilacs, andarborvitae about the catalpa tree are his territory and that he is readyto challenge any intruder.Courtshi'p.?After a few days the female arrives and an animatedcourtship begins. This is carried on largely in the seclusion of thedense shrubbery and evergreens which cover much of the backyard.Often they m^y be seen dashing in and out of the thick cover, themale in hot pursuit of his elusive mate. Frequently he pauses foran outpouring of song, with his plumage raised and tail loweredhe bows with his bill toward his perch. He slides about in a curiousmanner, or struts in a fantastic fashion with his wings lowered andtail erected, and sometimes he wheels about displaying the only bitof color he possesses: the contrasting chestnut patch on his undertail coverts. After a few days of arduous courtship nest-building be-gins, with the song period of the male reaching its climax. He singsalmost continuously during the early morning and evening hours andsometimes well into the night. As he sings he seems to be wellaware that he is an accomplished and versatile vocalist. He gives adistinct impression of a bird that likes to show off; he wishes to beheard and seen by everyone. His self-consciousness and vanity atsuch times are most amusing. Not only does the male sing vigor-ously but also he is ever on the alert to protect his territory againstall intruders whether it be the gray squirrel that comes to the feedingshelf nearby or the Baltimore oriole that builds its nest on a pendentlimb of the tall elm bordering the street.Nesting.?The catbird usually chooses low dense thickets, tanglesof vines, or small bushy trees for its nesting site. Often it is invegetation bordering marshes, streams, or forests. In all cases thenest is well concealed by foliage. It is an adaptable species andmay seek the habitations of man to build in hedgerows or cultivatedshrubs of the gardens. At Brunswick, Maine, there is a pair thatbuilds each year in a mass of shrubbery within a few yards of thehouse where the frequent presence of members of the householdfails to disturb their normal activities. The catbird is characteristicof the country home, and I have vivid memories of a pair that regu-
CATBIRD 323larly built in the blackberry briers that bordered our vegetablegarden of a central-Illinois farm. The old apple orchard was alsoa favorite nesting place of a pair of them. Witmer Stone (1913a)writes as follows : "Every old garden has somewhere about it a shadythicket of lilacs, mock-orange, or some similar shrubbery in a niche bythe back porch, perhaps, or behind the greenhouse, or over in thecorner where the fences come together; and it is with such a spotthat the Catbird is most closely associated in my mind."All the nests I have examined have been placed relatively low,ranging from 2 to 6 feet above ground. A. D. DuBois has sentus details of 16 nests that he found located in osage-orange hedges,willows, a small elm, thorn trees, elderberry, and various bushes andshrubs. These nests ranged from 3 to 10 feet above ground.In Maine the catbird sometimes resorts to coniferous trees, and Ihave found the nests in low thick spruce and fir trees. R. T. Morris(1923) reports a pair of catbirds that built in a pine tree on hisplace at Stamford, Conn. The nest was at an elevation of 20 feetabove ground. Two broods were reared, but he could not be surethe same nest was used for the second brood, as the branches weretoo thick to allow climbing for investigation. Catbirds are not ad-verse to wet situations, and some of them have been found nestingin cattail marshes and inland swamps. C. R. Stockard (1905)states that in the east-central portion of Mississippi he has foundnests of the catbird in bushes bordering lakes in which the nestswere suspended over the water.As might be expected, individual catbirds may depart from theusual nesting sites. M. B. Trautman (1940) studied 35 catbird nestsin the region of Buckeye Lake, Ohio, of which two were built on theground in spite of the fact other more favorable places were available.At the other extreme Pearson and the Brimleys (1919) reported anest located 50 to 60 feet above the level of the ground. W. N. Colton(1889) reports finding a catbird's nest in a natural cavity of a deadapple tree. The birds had filled up a cavity almost 9 inches deep withnesting materials. These nesting sites represent unusual conditions,and we should not allow them to confuse our conception of the usualnesting site of the catbird.The nest has a substantial and bulky foundation of coarse sticks,weed stems, grasses, leaves, and twigs. It is rather rough and strag-gly-appearing outwardly but neatly lined with skeleton leaves, pineneedles, fine shreds of bark, and more often with dark fibrous rootlets.In the Midwest, nests are sometimes provided with a horsehair lining.Some of the nests, especially those built near the habitations of man,have in addition to the usual materials bits of paper, cotton, tow,strings, and rags. W. L. McAtee (1940a), who analyzed the ma-terials used in the construction of 12 catbird nests, reports as follows
:
324 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
"Twelve nests were made of the following materials, the frequencyof use of which is indicated by the numbers in parentheses. Founda-tion: coarse weed stalks (11), leaves (7), paper (7), coarse twigs(5), red-cedar bark (4), grass (3), chestnut bark (1), and lumps ofdirt (1). Lining: in each case (12) made exclusively of rootlets."Both birds share in the work of carrying sticks to the nest, but thefemale does the major part of the construction and the shaping ofthe structure. If the male finds the female at the nest when he bringsnesting material, he hands it over to the female for her to manipulateinto the nest. On the other hand, if the male is at the nest when thefemale arrives, he immediately gives her right-of-way. The maleaccompanies the female on many of her journeys for nesting ma-terial, but a considerable portion of his time is taken up by singing anddefending his territory.About 5 or 6 days are required to complete the nest, and in onecase under observation the first egg was laid during the morning ofthe day after the nest was finished. One egg was added each morningthereafter until a set of four was complete. During the first fewdays the female did not incubate continuously but was away fromthe nest at irregular intervals of time. Thereafter she seldom lefther eggs and was fed on the nest by the male.On coming to the nest and settling down on the eggs she shiftedher body from side to side, working the feathers of the breast andbelly around the eggs and permitting them to come in direct contactwith naked aptera to receive the heat from her body needed for in-cubation. The nest is usually so deeply cupped that her long tailis thrust upward at an angle nearly perpendicular to the axis of herbody, and likewise the head is generally thrown back.Eggs.?The number of eggs per set varies from two to five. R. C.Harlow (1918), who examined 110 nests of the catbird in Pennsyl-vania and New Jersey, determined the average to be 4 with a varia-tion of from 3 to 5. Exceptional sets of 6 eggs have been reported byvarious observers. M. B. Trautman (1940) found a nest at BuckeyeLake, Ohio, on June 24, 1927, that contained 6 eggs. Nests with only1 or 2 well-incubated eggs have been reported.The eggs are a deep glossy greenish blue or bluish green, muchdeeper in tone than those of the robin or wood thrush. They are al-most always without markings, but there are a few rare exceptions.John Nichols has seen the eggs spotted with red. Sage, Bishop, andBliss (1913) and E. D. Wintle (1883) also reported catbirds as layingspotted eggs.The measurements of 50 eggs in the United States National Museumaverage 23.3 by 17.5 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 26.4 by 17.8, 24.1 by 18.8, 21.3 by 17.8, and 21.8 by 15.8millimeters.
CATBIRD 325Incubation.?Mrs. Helen G. Wliittle (1923) studied a pair of cat-birds that built near her home in Peterboro, N. H. She writes
:
The male took no share in incubating, nor did he ever, I think, make anyattempt to brood the young. If he came to the nest and found the femaleabsent, during incubation, he would fidget on a nearby twig in a helpless, wor-ried fashion, but apparently never thought of taking her place. * * * Dur-ing incubation, the male sang very infrequently within my hearing, and broughtfood to the female so seldom that I wondered how she could survive. Therewas however, evidence that the male of this pair was an inexperienced bird,possibly young, and this his first family.The female, left to do all the incubating, was very faithful to her task andsat patiently day after day through an extremely rainy period, which con-tinued with only brief respites, all through June and early July in southernNew Hampshire. One afternoon there was a severe hailstorm, and the femaleon the nest with feathers drawn close, bill pointing straight up and eyes shut,made as good a watershed of herself as possible, while hailstones the sizeof large peas pelted her unmercifully.The incubation period of the catbird as reported by various observersis 12 or 13 days.Young.?Ira N. Gabrielson (1913) describes the details of thehatching of the eggs in two catbirds' nests as follows, the observationsbeing made by Arthur F. Smith
:
At 4 : 55 a. m. one more egg was pipped, evidently by the old bird, as it waschipped inward and directly around the center of the egg. The egg hatched at5 : 55 p. m., the young bird forcing the shell open by rolling and plunging gentlyand by some use of the feet and wings. At 6 : 45 the female carried away half ofthe shell and returned at 6 : 48 with something in the bill which she swallowed,tho I could not determine whether it was the crushed shell or food. She left thenest at 6 : 53 only to return at 6 : 55 and take away the remaining shell.In nest C the first egg was pipped at 9 : 00 a. m. on July 20 and at 7 : 00 p. m.all three were pipped in practically the same place. The first break in eachshell came from within and was a little beyond the center of the egg toward thelarger end. It was simply a slight bulging evidently produced by a blow fromthe beak of the young bird. A series of cracks radiated in all directions fromtiis place. The next thing noticed was the extension of a series of these bulgesaround the egg at right angles to the long axis. At 11 : 30 a. m. July 21 one egghad hatched and the shell had been removed. The two other eggs had four ofthese breaks extending half way around the shell. From this time until 3 o'clockthere was no change in appearance altho a number of times the female pickedgently at the cracked places. On these occasions I could not see that she tookanything away although she undoubtedly broke the shell a little by these actions.At 3 : 00 p. m. she left the nest and was hardly out of sight when the egg shehad been picking began to hatch. A dark line appeared around the shell andenlarged in a series of tiny jerks until I could see the young bird kicking andtwisting within. The crack grew steadily wider until it was fully half an inchwide on the top of the egg, tho it had hardly opened at all on the side next thenest. At this point the female returned and immediately commenced picking atthe shell membrane which still held the two pieces of shell together. As it cameaway a bit at a time, she swallowed it, repeating the process until the two pieceshad fallen apart. She then seized the smaller piece (the big end of the egg andthe one that had contained the head of the nestling) and carried it away, leaving758066?48 22
326 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe nestling still in the remaining piece. In less than a minute she returned andseized the membrane still attached to the shell. As she pulled on the membrane,the nestling was lifted clear of the nest but fell back without injury. On thesecond attempt it pulled loose and tumbled the young one into the nest. Themembrane was quiclily swallowed and the remaining shell carried away. Shereturned immediately and picked the small bits of shell from the bottom of thenest, devoured them and commenced to brood. The actual process from the timethe crack appeared until the last bits of shell were taken from the nest did notexceed 10 minutes.At 9: 28 the next morning (July 22) the female partly rose from the nest dis-playing the separating halves of the last egg. The process was practically thesame as that previously described. The parent again took the smaller pieceof the shell first. She then returned and picked at the remaining piece two orthree times and brooded for 12 minutes before any other move was made. Atthe end of that time she rose in the nest, picked the bird up in the shell and thenlet it down again. The shell then came away from the nestling and was re-moved, the small pieces being picked carefully from the nest as before.In these three instances the hatching process seems to have been the same.In each case it was due to the combined efforts of the parent and the young birdwithin the egg. In the first case the initial movement may have come from thefemale while in the last two it originated with the young. In all three the femaleassisted by pecking at the egg and by removing the broken shell from the nestlingmuch sooner than it would have been able to free itself from the pieces.Dr. Gabrielson found that the catbirds brooded the young veryclosely during the first days of nest life, but when the young becameolder they were brooded only about 30 percent of the observation time.The conditions of the weather were an important factor in the deter-mination of the time spent by the female in brooding \he young, butin general the brooding time resolved itself into three distinct periods
:
The first period [was] from 4 : 30 a. m. to 7 : 30 a. m. ; the second from 10 : 30a. m. to 2 : 00 p. m. ; and the third from 6 : 30 p. m. until dark. The first periodwas undoubtedly as a protection against the chill of the early morning. Duringthe second period the sun's rays fell directly into the nest and the brooding atthis time was for the protection against the heat. * * * The brooding inthe evening was possibly merely preliminary to settling down on the nest for thenight and was the most variable of the three. * * * The position assumedin brooding depended on its purpose. In protecting the nestlings from rain orcold the positions were the same. The female settled down on the nest until itwas completely covered and the feathers of the breast were well down over theyoung. It was also noticed that she generally faced the wind. In brooding asa protection from the heat, she stood on the edge of the nest, with her back to thesun, wings spread, feathers of the breast ruffled and mouth open. From thisstudy the brooding time seems to depend on three factors, viz.?temperature,rainfall, and age of the young. The temperature factor will of course be modi-fied by the length of time the nest is shaded by the surrounding vegetation. Asthe young become older the brooding becomes less intense for heat or cold but re-mains about the same as a protection against rain.The catbird is scrupulous in the sanitation of the nest. The ex-creta is rarely allowed to touch the nest but is taken from the youngand immediately eaten or removed. During the observations at thenest Dr. Gabrielson states: "The excreta was removed 125 times, 88
CATBIRD 327times from the nestling last fed, 20 times from some other one and in17 instances it was not determined. * * * XJp to the sixth daythe excreta was always devoured * * * and the remainder car-ried away. The proportion carried away, increased to the end of thestudy."Dr. Gabrielson observed the departure of one of the young as fol-lows : "His departure was accomplished very simply. At about 11 :15a. m. he climbed to the edge of the nest and attempted to jump to atwig a short distance away. He fell short and tumbled to the groundwithout injury. At this time the parents appeared and coaxed him offinto the thick underbrush in the ravine. The next morning both ofthe others were gone from the nest."R. W. Shufeldt ( 1893) observed the details of the nesting of a pairof catbirds that built their nest in a honeysuckle vine under the roofof his veranda. The young remained in the nest 10 days, and herecords their departure as follows
:
At 6 : 45 p. m. on June 5, all the birds left the nest together. No one was nearit at the time, and there appeared to be no special disturbing cause. There wasthreatening weather, to be sure, and low rumbling thunder at the time, but nolightning nor loud reports. We were dining at that hour, and my first knowl-edge of their having left the nest was my attention being called to a young onenear the open dining-room door, which led out on the veranda. All the youngwere easily made prisoners on the ground, and I consigned them to a comfortablecage, which I hung up under the roof close to the nest. Here the parents faith-fully fed them through the cage wires until noon of June 8, at which time anyone of them could fly 50 or 60 feet with considerable vigor. Fearing that some-thing might happen to them in the cage, at the time just mentioned I took themall down to the lower end of my garden and let them go in the dense underbrushthat was overshadowed by numbers of second growth oaks and other trees.Mrs. Helen G. Whittle (1925) determined by banding that a pairof catbirds remained mated for both the first and second broods ofthe season of 1924. They both appeared the following May and againreared their broods. S. E. Perkins, 3d (1928) banded a pair of cat-birds on June 6, 1926, when they were nesting, and on July 11, 1926,they were retrapped, when they were still mates at the second nest.The following j^ear on June 24, 1927, the same pair were mated andusing a nest built within 5 feet of both 1926 nests. J. D. Black (1929)states that five consecutive broods were raised in the same rosebush.The first nest was built late in the summer of 1927. In 1928 the birdsbuilt a few inches from the 1927 nest and reared two young catbirds.As soon as the young left, a second nest almost touching the first wasbuilt and four young were reared. The third nest of the year and thefourth in the bush was built, and two birds again were raised. Thechain was broken with the flying of the first 1929 brood. The adultsbuilt a second in another rosebush 20 feet away. As far as I know Mr.Black did not band the birds, and one cannot be certain that the adults
328 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of the six nestings were the same individuals, but presumably theywere. These three cases indicate a constancy of catbirds to their terri-tory and to their mates.Geoffrey Gill ( 1935, 1936a) obtained somewhat different results withcatbirds banded at Huntington, Long Island. In 12 cases he studiednot a pair remained mated for two broods in a single season. Con-siderable variation was exhibited by the birds in their return to thesame territory. One male was constant to one territory for four con-secutive summers and six nestings. This male had six different matesin 5 years, but in the last 2 years, as he grew older, he had only onenest each season and during this period was faithful to the same mate.The catbirds that Mr, Gill studied frequently changed their territoryfor different nestings. It is evident that there is considerable indi-vidual variation in the constancy of catbirds to their mates andterritory.An anonymous writer (1887) reports from Laramie, Wyo., that hefound a catbird living on intimate terms with a shrike ; both pairs ofbirds built their nests in the same bush, but each seemed to hold un-disputed possession of their particular side of the bush. Mrs. Ken-neth B. Wetherbee (1930) reports a unique case of the interrelation-ship of a pair of catbirds and a pair of robins, which built their nestsin the same clump of lilacs. The robin and catbird took turns in incu-bating the catbird eggs, and when the young hatched they werebrooded by both robins and catbirds. The robin's nest was a fewfeet above that of the catbird and was not discovered until the youngcatbirds had left their nest. It would be interesting to know whetherthe catbirds assisted the robins in their household duties.Catbirds have been known to care for the young of other birds.Earl Brooks (1922) writes of a brood of orphaned cardinals that werefed and mothered by a catbird, and W. J. Hayward (1937) reportsa case where a mother catbird fed a half-grown flicker that had beendislodged from its nest and separted from its parents during a severestorm. The feeding instincts are strongly developed in catbirds, andif they have lost their own young through some misfortune they willreadily adopt the offspring of others.In contrast to the behavior described above the catbird occasionallydestroys the eggs of other birds, but this habit is not characteristic ofthe species. J. B. W. (1884) reports he saw a catbird destroy an eggof the wood pewee before the latter succeeded in driving it away fromits nest. Edwin Dixon (1930) states that a catbird was found robbinga chipping sparrow's nest. It ate the contents of one egg and pickedholes in the other two. Proof that the egg was eaten was obtained byshooting the catbird. Leda W. Chace (1931) saw a catbird glide intoa locust tree outside her window where a robin's nest was located. Thecatbird was seen to thrust its bill into one of the eggs and lift it clear
CATBIRD 329
of the nest. Later another of the robin's eggs was found on the groundwith a punctured side as if a large needle had pierced it.Plwmage.?In the juvenal plumage of the catbird the pileum is adull sooty brown, many shades lighter than that of the adult. Thewings and tail are nearly black as in the adult, the primaries andsecondaries edged with smoke gray, the coverts browner edged, thetail with indistinct barring ; the interscapular region brownish ashy,shading into pale mouse gray indistinctly mottled with clove brownor rufous, the throat and sides faintly tinged with sepia, the crissumpale, dead cinnamon or mars brown. Bill and feet dusky pinkishbuff becoming black.The first winter plumage, according to Jonathan Dwight (1900)?is acquired by a partial postjuvenal moult, beginning early in August, whichinvolves the body plumage and the wing coverts, but not the rest of thewings nor the tail, young and old become practically indistinguishable. Simi-lar to the previous plumage but much grayer and no mottling. Everywhereclear slate-gray, much paler below and on the sides of the head and neck
;
the pileum black ; the crissum deep chestnut.The first nuptial plumage acquired by wear which produces little obviouschange.The adult winter plumage acquired by a complete post-juvenal moult inAugust. Practically indistinguishable from the first winter; the wings andtail perhaps averaging blacker and with grayer edgings. The adult nuptialplumage acquired by wear as in the young bird.According to Chapman (1916) "some females have the crown andupperparts slightly browner than in the male but they vary toolittle to make the sexes certainly distinguishable. The catbird showsno geographic variation throughout its wide range."Some individuals present a variation in the relative amount of thechestnut coloring of the crissum. Lincoln (1920) reports that aspecimen captured at "Washington, D. C, had an extreme restrictionof the chestnut. "Basally," he says, "there was no trace of chestnutwhich was present only in the form of a very narrow edging (in noplace as much as a sixteenth of an inch in width) beginning aboutmidway of the feathers and continuing around the tips."Alexander Wetmore (1936) has determined the number andweight of the contour feathers of many of our passeriform birds.In a catbird obtained June 4, 1933, weighing 35.6 grams, there were1,733 contour feathers weighing 2.3 grams.Albinism is of relatively common occurrence in the catbird; manyboth pure and partial albinistic forms have been reported of whichthe following are representative. Mrs. F. L. Battell (1941) writesof seeing two albino catbirds that appeared with the parent cat-birds at Ames, Iowa, during the summer of 1940. Although nearlyfull grown they were still fed by the adults. Tlie young were purewhite, even the feathers of the crissum being without a trace of
330 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
color. E. Deane (1879) reports an immature catbird collected atHyde Park, 111., on July 21, 1878, and pure white albino with pinkeyes captured alive at Trenton, N. J. K. J. Middleton (1936)trapped a nearl}'^ pure white specimen at Norristown, Pa. The un-derparts of this specimen were grayish white with a tinge of reddishbrown on the under tail coverts; the back was gray and the headabout the color of the back of normal specimens. Annie T. Slosson(1883) writes of a partial albinistic catbird that she kept in cap-tivity at Hartford. This bird had a band of white across the tail,about an inch from the tip. There was also one white feather inthe wing, but otherwise the coloration was normal. The band inthe tail was very conspicuous especially when the tail was spread.Food:?Unfortunately the food habits of the catbird are not entirelybeneficial from the standpoint of the interests of man. Bitter com-plaints of damage, perhaps in some instances greatly exaggerated,have come from the growers of berries and owners of orchards.To obtain a true picture of its food habits it is well to examine notonly the records of the stomach-content analyses of representativespecimens taken over the entire range of distribution but also thenumerous field observations that have been made concerning the foodof this important and attractive bird.Vegetable food : According to Sylvester Judd ( 1895) , who examinedthe stomach contents of 213 catbirds, only 13 of the birds had eatenstrawberries and 20 had taken cherries. However, Judd calls ourattention to the fact that though the bird may eat the bulk of onlyone strawberry or cherry a score may have been pecked, and the injuryof a single grape in a bunch detracts from the value of the wholebunch. F. E. L. Beal (1918), reporting on the stomach contents of645 catbirds, states that 56 percent of the food was vegetable; one-third of which consisted of cultivated fruits or those that may becultivated such as strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries. Theremainder of the vegetable matter was mostly wild fruit, such as wildcherries, dogwood, sourgum, elderberries, greenbrier, spiceberries,black alder, and sumac. C. C. Purdum (1902) in the examination of192 stomachs found 18 percent of the food to be cultivated fruits, 35percent wild fruits, and 2 percent miscellaneous vegetable matter,making a total of 55 percent, practically the same as the determinationsmade by Beal.That the catbird can subsist on a purely vegetable diet, even underadverse conditions, is shown by the large number of reports of thisbird wintering in the north as far as the New England States, a timewhen no insects are to be found but when an abundance of berries ispresent in their winter haunts. C. E. Moulton (1921) observed acatbird at frequent intervals at Lynn, Mass., from January 10 untilApril 6. This individual fed chiefly on the berries of the buckthorn.
CATBIRD 331It remained within the limits of a little swamp among the hills whichwas completely surrounded with woods. The bushes were overrunwith catbrier filled with berries. There was an abundance of moun-tain-ash and bittersweet, which furnished a full larder for this winter-ing bird. W. H. Ball (1927) observed a catbird near Washington,D. C, during December and January 1925-26, which he found wassubsisting chiefly on the berries of the honeysuckle vines. A. W.Schorger (1926) collected a catbird at Madison, Wis., on December20, the stomach of which was filled with the fruit of the climbing;bittersweet. Witmer Stone (1913b), in presenting the records ofWilliam Bartram, cites the record of a catbird that was seen andheard singing in Bartram 's garden on January 8, 1820. On the nextday it was seen feeding on the berries of Sideroxylon; although aviolent storm raged on January 10 and the snow covered the groundthe bird still remained, evidently attracted by the berries. P. A.Taverner (1919) states that the catbirds observed by him in theRed Deer River district. Alberta, fed chiefly on buffaloberries. OttoWidmann (1907) states that the late migrants in fall congregate inthe region of St. Louis to feed on wild grapes. H. Brackbill (1942)studied the food habits of a catbird at Baltimore, Md., from Novem-ber 3, 1940, until February 23, 1941. Feeding was observed on 23 days,during which five foods were eaten, including the Japanese honey-suckle, which was eaten on 21 days from December 1 through Febru-ary 23. The latter was eaten in great quantities, at one time he sawthe bird eat 30 of the berries in 22 minutes in addition to other food.It was also seen to eat the haws of the cockspur thorn, frost grapes,and seeds of poison ivy and sumac.In Florida, where the catbird is a regular though not abundant win-ter resident, various observers have reported the birds subsisting onholly, poke, and smilax berries, balsam apples, and Barbados cherries,and stomachs of catbirds collected at Micco, Fla., were found to containthe seeds of the saw palmetto. It is obvious from the foregoingrepresentative reports that the catbird can adapt itself to a purelyvegetable diet, and this accounts for the surprising number of winterrecords over a wide range, even in sections of the country where coldweather and snow prevail.From an economic standpoint the vegetable diet of the catbird asa whole does not represent a serious loss. Under certain conditionsthe growers of berries, grapes, cherries, and other fruits do have ajust grievance. According to F. E. L. Beal (1897) , most of these com-plaints come from the Mississippi Valley where fruit-bearing shrubs,which afford such a large part of the bird's food, are conspicuouslyabsent. With the settlement of the region comes the extensive plant-ing of orchards, vineyards, and small fruit gardens, which furnishshelter and nesting sites for the catbird and other species. There is
332 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMin consequence a large increase in the number of birds, but no cor-responding gain in the supply of native fruits upon which they areaccustomed to feed. Under these circumstances, what is more naturalthan for the birds to turn to cultivated fruits for their food ? Culti-vated fruits can be protected by planting the wild species, which arepreferred by the birds. For example, the Russian mulberry is pre-ferred to all varieties of cutivated fruits, and the planting of a numberof these trees will solve the problem of devastation by the catbird andat the same time preserve this bird, which at certain seasons is a use-ful destroyer of insects. That the catbirds are attracted by wild berriesand fruits is shown by the experience of Geoffrey Gill (1936a) , who byplanting Scotch pine for cover and wild blackberry canes and otherberry-bearing shrubs for food at his banding station in Huntington,Long Island, increased the number of catbirds from 72 individuals in1931 to 183 in 1935.In New England few complaints are ever lodged against the cat-bird. For example, F. E. L. Beal, of Lunenburg, Mass., says: "Onmy farm in Massachusetts I have raised strawberries, blackberries, andraspberries by the acre, with grapes, pears, and apples in abundance,and although the farm was nearly surrounded by woods and wasadjacent to a swamp where the catbirds and thrashers abounded, Inever knew one of them to touch a single fruit, though perhaps theyhave taken a few. I thought no more of accusing the catbirds orrobins of fruit stealing than I would the swallows in the barn."Animal, food : The damage done by the catbird in its depredationson cultivated fruits is compensated for by the injurious insects eatenat other seasons of the year. The animal food contained in thestomachs of 645 catbirds as reported by F. E. L. Beal (1897) constitutes44 percent of the entire contents. The animal food is chiefly insects,most of which are serious pests to crops. Ants, beetles, caterpillars,and grasshoppers make up three-fourths of the animal food, the re-mainder consisting of miscellaneous insects and spiders. In theexamination of 192 stomachs of the catbird C. C. Purdum (1902) foundthat ants constituted 10 percent of the entire food, beetles 24 percent,caterpillars 5 percent, grasshoppers 4 percent, bugs 2 percent, spidersand thousandlegs 4 percent, and miscellaneous animal food 5 percent.According to S. D. Judd (1895) , in May when the catbird arrives fromthe South two-thirds of its food is animal matter made up chiefly ofants, thousandlegs. May beetles, predaceous ground beetles, and cater-pillars. For the first part of June the May ratio of the animal tovegetable matter is sustained, but during the latter part of the monththe proportion of vegetable food increases. Early in the season thecatbirds eat few grasshoppers and crickets, but by the end of June theseinsects constitute 10 percent of their food. Five catbirds examined inJune contained an average of 30 grasshoppers each. After June the
CATBIRD 333number of grasshoppers dwindles to insignificance. The number ofMay beetles eaten increases from the first to the twentieth of June,but after this time they are also replaced by fruits. By August thepercentage of insects eaten drops to 1 percent but rises again in Sep-tember. The examination of 213 stomachs reveals that beetles andants form the most important food of the catbird, though smooth cater-pillars play no insignificant part. Crickets and grasshoppers arerelished and come next in importance. The less important thoughconstant parts of the fare are thousandlegs, centipeds, bugs, andspiders. In addition to the insects revealed by stomach examinations,field observations indicate that many and diverse kinds of insects areeaten.J. C. "Wood (1905) observed catbirds catching and eating the largececropia, prometheus, and sphinx moths, which were also fed to theyoung. H. B. Wood (1930) reports seeing a catbird capture and eat alarge number of honeybees that had invaded a summer cottage. HenryMousley (1932) found the catbird to be one of the most importantdestroyers of Japanese beetles. E. H. Forbush (1907) states that hesaw catbirds eating plant lice for hours at a time. He also reportsseeing them feed extensively on gypsy and browntail moth larvae.K. S. Deck (1928) observed them feeding on dragonflies. Jennie K.Macoubrie (1932) gives an interesting account of a catbird that en-tered a basement laboratory through an open window to feed onmuseum pests, dermestid beetles. For a period of two weeks it madefrequent visits in and out, each time carrying one of the beetles to itsyoung. Perhaps the most unusual departure from the usual food hab-its of the catbird was reported by Dr. John C. Phillips ( 1927) , who sawthe birds wading in shallow water at the Sutton fish hatchery, wherethey were deftly catching and swallowing trout fry about II/2 incheslong. According to the superintendent of the hatchery it was a com-mon habit among several pairs of catbirds that nested close b3^ W. L.McAtee ( 1926a) , in his study of the relation of birds to woodlots, men-tions the following insects eaten by the catbird that have not beenpreviously mentioned. "Among the ants are numerous carpenter antswhich are given to hollow^ing out trees. The beetles include numer-ous forms detrimental to the forest, as leaf chafers, goldsmith beetles,junebugs, nut weevils, bark beetles, and other weevils. * * *Other injurious beetles taken are the round-headed wood borers, in-cluding the ash borer {Necolytus capraea) , leaf beetles, including thegrapevine flea beetle {Fidia mticida) and the locust leaf miner{Odontota dorsalis) . Plant lice, leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, psyllids,cicadas, sawflies, and white ants are additional enemies of trees thatthe Catbird consumes." Francis H. Allen has observed the catbirdfeeding among the dead leaves on the ground. Quoting from his cor-respondence : "Catbirds throw the leaves aside with their bills. The
334 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMmotion is much like a sidewise rooting, but sometimes I have seenclearly that the leaf was picked up in the bill and thrown very quicklyto one side or the other or behind. A leaf will often go a foot or afoot and a half, and sometimes one will drop on the bird's tail."Various observers have reported the catbird's fondness for suchfood as cheese, bread, raisins, currants, milk, corn flakes and puffedwheat soaked in milk, mushrooms, garbage, boiled potato, fried fish,beef stew, peanuts, and beef soup. E. G. Holt and G. M. Sutton( 1926) report that a catbird ate bits of meat of skinned specimens thatthey were preparing at Gator Lake, Fla. Indeed the food eaten isso diversified in nature that the catbird can be considered omnivorousin its food habits. Few birds are more adaptable in eating anykind of food that chances to be readily accessible.Perhaps the most useful eating trait of the catbird in its rela-tion to man's interest is its frequent concentration on certain de-structive insects that become abundant during severe infestations.It is at such times that the catbird arises to the situation and rendersgreat service in keeping the ravages of the pests in check. S. A.Forbes (1883) has vividly described the important action of cat-birds on the orchard infestations of cankerworms in Illinois. W. L.McAtee (1920) tells how the periodic abundance of cicadas almostentirely diverted the attacks of catbirds from cultivated fruits.Phoebe Knappen (1933) reports that catbirds which discovered asawfly infestation of an ash tree fed on the larvae exclusively aslong as the insects were in evidence. During the great plague ofarmyworms in New Jersey, New York, and New England States ofthe summer of 1914 there were many reports of catbirds as well asother birds, which fed ravenously on these pests. Edward A. GillWylie (1914) wrote: "The present plague of armyworms, * * *provides a severe example to us of one of the many reasons why thenumber of insectivorous birds should not only be conserve^ butmaterially increased. A horde of these pests suddenly came to lighton a small place about 4 acres large. * * * Immediately thebirds of the neighborhood deserted their usual haunts and assembledon these four acres. They ate so many [of the armyworms] thatoften a bird would disgorge and proceed to make a fresh start,* * * at least one-half of the worms were consumed by them(catbirds and others) in the 2 days that elapsed before the sprayingby experts commenced to destroy what was left." E. H. Eaton(1914) writes of a plague of cankerworms in the orchards of MonroeCounty, N. Y., in 1898. The orchards were practically denudedby the worms. He observed the catbirds and other birds swallowingthe larvae at the rate of 15 to 40 a minute.Food of the young: S. D. Judd (1900) examined the stomachcontents of 14 young nestlings of the catbird and 11 adults mainly
CATBIRD 335the parents of the young. The old birds had taken 91 percent oftheir food in fruits?buckthorn, catbrier, cherries, raspberries, andblackberries. The nestlings, however, had eaten fruit to the extentof only 4 percent of their food, and the remainder of their dietwas principally ants, beetles, caterpillars, spiders, and grasshoppers.Dr. I. N. Gabrielson (1913) made detailed observations of the foodfed by adult catbirds to their nestlings. Practically all the fooddelivered consisted of insects, and it was only during the last 2days that food in the form of raspberries and gooseberries was fedto the young. Out of 596 feedings observed there were 99 flies, 55beetles, 52 larvae, 42 mayflies, 40 grasshoppers, 35 moths, 21 meas-uring-worms and 21 worms of various species, 17 spiders, 11 crickets,9 katydids, 8 caterpillars, 8 raspberries, 6 dragonflies, 5 wireworms,3 butterflies, and 1 each of mosquito, small frog, and gooseberry.There were 161 unidentified morsels chiefly insects too small or toocrushed to determine with accuracy. Dr. Gabrielson's observationsreveal the great variety of insects and the comparatively smallamount of fruit that is delivered to the young when insect life isabundant, as it was in the vicinity of the nests he studied.If all these varied food habits are considered from a purely eco-nomic standpoint the catbird will be found to have much in itsfavor to counteract the less than 20 percent of its food that consistsof cultivated fruits useful to man.Behavior.?^Although the catbird usually establishes itself in awell-defined territory to which it challenges all intruders, it doesat times live in harmony with other birds. E. A. Doolittle (1923)writes of a catbird nest containing four eggs that was built in a littlethornbush hardly 3 feet high. Less than 4 feet from the catbird'snest and on the same level was a nest and five eggs of the yellowwarbler. Apparently the catbirds made no effort to disturb theirsmaller neighbors and were indulgent with their presence.The catbird is not so adapatable in solving unusual situations withwhich it may be confronted, as some other birds. Dr. A. A. Allen(1912) found that if a cloth is placed over a phoebe's nest, the birdwith a single glance grasped the situation and immediately removedthe obstacle. The catbird, however, was at a total loss as to whatto do under a similar situation.Duriug the first 10 minutes that the cloth was in place upon the nest, thefemale bird inspected ten times at fairly regular intervals, usually peeringfrom the rear of the side. The first and eighth times, however, she walkedaround the edge of the nest. After the tenth inspection, an interval of 4minutes ensued before she returned. She then passed around the nest, butinspected its edges more than the rag. The feathers of the nape were usuallyraised during inspection. After an interval of 1 minute, she approached thenest from the side, crouching and ruffling the feathers as if about to incubate.She then left for 4 minutes. Appearing again, she started to incubate on the
336 BULLETIN 195. UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthick mat of twigs and leaves at one side of the nest, remaining in this posi-tion with the feathers rufflevi for 30 seconds. The nest time she stayed away9 minutes and remmed only to inspect from the rear. Intervals of 6 and 7minutes followed, the bird apparently taking less and less interest in thenest. KeaJizing this, I became anxious for the safety of the eggs and removedthe doth. In 3 minutes more she was back in the bush but did not insi)ectthe nest. Ten minutes later, however, she returned apparently to stay,inspected the eggs and b^an at once to incubate.
? * What light this throws on the narures of the two birds. The one, withchanging con'iitions, has been able to adapt itself, the other has remained everthe same. Stirely this foreshadows the future. At present both are among ourcommon birds. The phr>ebe will become more and more so as he copes with newc-onditions, the catbird rarer and rarer as time goes on.Voice.?The catbird at its best stands high in the ranks of ourAmerican bird singers. Each year one appears in my backyard, andimmediatelT upon his arrival his song is the most delightful featureof the chorus of the multitude of bird voices. A good catbird songneeds no apology. The bird sits on some tall spray rising above thegeneral tangle of shrubs, its tail depressed and body held low to theperch, and pours forth its medley of song. Phrase follows phrase inrapid succession, and snatches of all the bird songs in the neighbor-hood appear intermixed with occasional hai^her notes, which aregiven with as much care and finish as the more melodious ones. TThenan intruder is detected approaching, the outpour stops with a suddensqueak, the tail flies up. and the bird comes to attention. Xo matterhow many years we may listen to his performance there is alwayssomething new and interesting to be learned from his varied rendi-tions. The catbird is individualistic, and while one bird may be un-usually versatile and of prima-donna rank others may be quiteordinary in their ability to imitate and very mediocre in the quality oftheir voice.^The song in general." as analyzed in notes by A. A. Saunders, "islong-continued and of phrases that are greatly varied with pausesbetween them. It differs from both the mockingbird and the brownthrasher in that phrases very rarely consist of repetitions of certainnotes. The quality is not quite so full and rich as that of the mocking-bird or thrasher. In my records pitch ranges three tones more thanan octave, from A''' ' to D" "." According to Albert R. Brand (1938),who has determined vibration frequencies of many of the passerinebird songs by recordings on motion-picture film, the song of the catbirdhas a frequency ranging from the lowest note of 1,100 to the highestof 4,375. The approximate mean of the recordings of the catbird'ssong was determined to be 3,000 vibrations.
"Winsor M. Tyler (MS.) describes the usual song of the catbird asa "series of quick, bright widely varying phrases, which is continuedsometimes for 5 minutes or more. In form it is like the brown thrash-er's song but is more disjointed and does not run on with the regular
CATBIRD 337beat of the thrasher, but is interrupted by pauses and marred by theinterpolation of harsh, squeaky, or squawking notes. The phrasesmay consist of three or four syllables or may be reduced to a singlehigh peep. As we listen we hear such phrases as ''ev^eet^ twit-tujit-twif,rherooeekoo, tereet, eroheet^ involving a wide range of pitch. In toneof voice the song sometimes suggests a vireo in some of its phrasesbut is much more lively. It has a pleasant whistled quality and at itsbest approaches the rich tone of the talented robin."When singing, the catbird as a rule is half hidden in the shrubbery,but he sometimes mounts on the top of a bush to sing. He stands withwings drooped, tail hanging low, rump feathers elevated, and bodysomewhat humped up. Often he turns his head from side to side, andas he sings he opens his bill wide. As he goes on he seems to be tryingexperiments, perhaps for his own amusement, but we sometimes getan impression that his song is addressed to an audience, perhaps toourselves, for he often glances over his shoulder as if to say, "How'sthat?' There appears to be a bit of the clown in the catbird's nature."At times the song has a soft ventriloquial character, seeming tocome from everywhere about; again it is loud and easily traced toits source. At the approach of any disturbing element the songceases and the angry catlike mew is uttered, a note that has givenorigin to the unfortunate name. This note, a petulant cry or snarl,an impolite whine, lazy and drawling, is long-drawn-out with a fall-ing inflection at the end. This call is one of the most outstandingcharacteristics of its varied song. Often we may be in doubt as tothe identity of a certain song if the singer is hidden from view, butwhen the catbird interrupts its musical phrases with this catcall itat once dispels all uncertainty.Another note of the catbird is a harsh, sharply enunciated chatter,rather wrenlike. We may hear this note suddenly rattle out withstartling effect from the shrubbery where a bird is hiding or some-times from the air as he flies away. E. P. Bicknell (lS8i) describesone of its characteristic vocal accomplisliments as a short cracklingsoimd like the snapping of small fagots. E. A. Samuels (1872)writes: "The alarm note is a rattling cry, like the sound of quickbreaking of several sticks : it is perhaps well expressed by the syllablestrat-tat tat tat uttered very quickly."Still another note we hear issuing from the catbird's tangle is a low,mellow chuck, like the soft quack of a duck giving the impression ofbeing uttered way back in the tliroat?a note of minor alarm. K.Hoffmann (1904) describes notes resembling a mellow cluck and oc-casionally a grating chatter, kaJ^-kak-kak.Associated with the courtship is a whistled monosyllable, peer, sug-gestive of the notes of the pine grosbeak.A. A. Saunders (1929a) writes:
338 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe catbird during courtship sings a song that differs from the territory songchiefly in intensity. It is low and soft and almost in a whisper and is usuallysung with the bill closed. One must be near the singer to hear the song. Thebird closes its bill and sings the familiar carol so softly that it is audible only ashort distance ; at times the catbird accompanying them with a grotesque dis-play, spreading the wings and tail and fluffing out the feathers.It is not always certain, however, that peculiar songs at the height of the mat-ing season are stimulated by the presence of the female. At times they may bedue to the presence of a rival male, for bird song is used in battle as well as incourtship. It is not uncommon to see birds fighting in the season of courtshipand mating. Whether the battle be over mates, or over territory it is oftenaccomplished by song.During the summer of 1910 the catbirds were abundant about Fairy-land Place, Bermuda Islands. A pair of them had built their nest ina cedar tree about 4 feet above ground and just outside my window.The song of unusually high musical quality, pleasing and indescrib-ably beautiful, was sung frequently throughout the day and sometimeswell into the night. One of this pair was seen and heard to singwhile on the nest, a curious behavior, which would seem to advertisethe location of the nest to possible enemies lurking in the neighbor-hood. This trait is not peculiar to the Bermuda catbird residents,for O. W. Knight (1908) writes: "I have known the male bird toengage in song while on the nest and to keep it up for some minutesat a time." Several observers have seen the female catbird singingwhile on the nest. Helen G. Whittle (1923) writes: "One day as Isat close to the window, within 3 or 4 feet of her, I was amazed anddelighted to hear her, while sitting on the nest, take up the strain herlord was singing. She followed it in all of its intricacies, perfectlyand beautifully, but in a 'whisper' voice. On a later day she did asimilar thing, though in briefer, less brilliant fashion."On June 28, 1907, 1 was camping on the Ohio River near Shelterville,southern Illinois. About midnight I was awakened by a chorus ofbird voices. It was a gorgeous, clear, moonlit night, so bright thatit was almost like day. When I strolled outside the camp I heardthe songs of the yellow-breasted chat, the mockingbird, the Carolinawren, and the catbird, in this unusual medley of moonlight serenaders.They all seemed at their best, but had it not been for the fact that Icould see the singers it would have been difficult to identify some of theperformers. Both the mockingbird and catbird were giving a fullseries of imitations and at times were carrying the parts of the chatand wren of this musical quartet.In correspondence received from Francis H. Allen he writes : "OnMay 19, 1923, nearly 2 hours before sunrise, I heard the nocturnalsong from a catbird. He sang for some time very sweetly but slowly,the phrases coming much farther apart than in the usual daytimesinging." Mrs. Marie A. Commons (1930) has beautifully and
CATBIRD 339graphically described the nocturnal song of the catbird as follows:"And at night, when white flowers in the garden shine faintly luminousin the world of shadows and ipomoeas on the pergola gleam like palemoons, caressing the air with fragrance, it is then that our cavalier istransformed into a celestial singer, as soul-stirring as the nightingalein the Old World gardens or the mockingbird in southern climes."Many observers have heard and reported the "whisper" songs ofseveral species of birds, but this trait is most pronounced in the catbird.It seems to be heard most frequently in autumn, but it may be given atall seasons. J. W. Lloyd (1914) gives an account of the whisper songof the catbird he heard on September 14, 1908, well after the nestingseason : "A catbird, not over 4 or 5 feet from me, sitting trustfully ona stick among the weeds, quite unconcerned, and singing in such a low,fine voice that I could only just hear him. * * * His throat merely,trembled, and occasionally the bill parted just a trifle. Yet his songseemed the full repertoire of the catbird, including * * * twofaint mews. The whisper song was heard in the autumn on subsequentyears which may or may not have been the same individual. PenelopeBaldwin (1929) tells of her experience in hearing this song in thespring as follows : "I saw a catbird * * * in the plum tree just out-side my window. There was no sound of his song, but I could see thathe was singing. Quietly I opened the window. In came the smell ofplum blossoms, in came humming of a thousand bees, in came thewhispered song of the catbird, tranquil and clear, indescribablylovely."The catbird possesses a remarkable talent in mimicking the callsand songs of other birds?in fact any sound it may hear whether it bea cackling hen, an agonizing squeak of an ungreased wagon wheel, orthe musical song of its bird neighbors. Some individual catbirds areextremely versatile, yet you may listen to others throughout the seasonand never hear a recognizable imitation. There is also a variation inthe quality of the song.There are so many reports from reliable observers of the mimickingability of the catbird that we must conclude that it approaches avery close second to that expert the mockingbird. E. H. Forbush(1929) writes: "It is somewhat startling * * * to hear the cat-bird's sweetest song interrupted by a perfect imitation of some harshcry such as that of the great crested flycatcher, the squawk of a hen,the cry of a lost chicken or the spitting of a cat. * * * He is in-clined to attempt to imitate the most common sounds, such as thecroaking of the frogs and the utterances of barnyard fowls, but alsosometimes succeeds in reproducing unusual musical sounds."Marie E. Hegler (1923) gives an interesting account of her experi-ence in teaching a catbird a whistled call. The bird did not respond
340 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe first summer, but in the following spring it was heard to utter thewhistle followed by a series of catcalls, when it first arrived. There-after it was frequently heard throughout the summer.Mary M. Kussell (1929) gives an account of hearing a catbird imi-tate the call of a whippoorwill. The imitation was short, staccato,Avith a happy lilt, but very, very real. At one time when the catbird,perched in the branches of a cherry tree, was singing his song. MissRussell began to whistle the whippoorwill call. He continued sing-ing but was deaf to her call. She went closer and continued to whistlethe notes. After many repetitions the catbird suddenly stoppedshort, perked up his head to one side, and after a moment of completesilence sang whip-poor-will four times,Winton Weydemeyer (1930) writes of an unusual case of mimicryby a catbird. A wandering male bobolink appeared at his ranch inMontana where these birds are not common but in recent years havebeen extending their range to the State. For at least half an hourduring the morning of May 31, when the bobolink first arrived, acatbird from a nearby brushy flat perched on fence posts near theflying bobolink and mimicked its song. In many of its imitationsit repeated the entire song of the bobolink, without introducing for-eign notes or phrases. Another interesting feature of the performancewas the persistence of the catbird in repeating the imitation so manytimes without the interspersion of other singing. On July 22 Mr.Weydemeyer was astonished to hear what sounded like a typical flightsong of the bobolink. He then saw a catbird fly out and upward untilit reached a height of about 30 feet above the brush ; then while de-scending at an angle, its flight slow and jerky, but not fluttering, itgave a strikingly realistic rendition of the bobolink's flight song. Thisis the first case of combined song and flight mimicry that the observerhad ever noted in the catbird.Dr. C. W. Townsend (1905) says for a moment he was deceivedby a catbird that swooped down one July day and flew across theIpswich River with a perfect kingfisher rattle and action. Later Dr.Townsend (1924), in his excellent account of mimicry of voice inbirds, wrote
:
He appears to be constantly trying some new combination of notes, and someof bis improvisations are very sweet and musical. These he occasionally repeatsin a manner of the brown thrasher, particularly when a musical phrase appearsto tickle his fancy. Thus I once heard a catbird rolling off a delightful phrasewhich sounded like Peter-horo, Peterboro. This he repeated five or six times,then mewed and tried something else. If the catbird would suppress his loveof bazarre and harsh notes, and of buffoonery and horseplay?for I suspect hehas a sense of humor?and would devote himself more continually to his musicalrepertoire, he would rank among our best singers.Dr. Townsend gives us an imposing list of catbird imitations ofbird songs or their calls from his own experience and that of other
CATBIRD 341
observers. The list includes blue jay, bobwhite, flicker, robin, barnswallow, goldfinch, rose-breasted grosbeak, veery, wood thrush, red-eyed, yellow-throated, and solitary vireos, brown thrasher, greateryellowlegs, least flycatcher, crested flycatcher, wood pewee, cowbird,chewink, scarlet tanager, and black-polled warbler. A. A. Saunders(MS.), who has given particular attention to the imitations of thecatbird, lists many of the above and in addition the red-shoulderedhawk, killdeer, phoebe, bluebird, blue-headed vireo, redstart, theyellow, magnolia, black-throated blue, black-throated green, chestnut-sided, and prairie warblers, western meadowlark, and cardinal. Hehas also heard the catbird imitate the tree frog {Hyla versicolor)
.
Many other imitations have been reported. It is apparent that therange of its imitations are limitless. This enterprising bird is everon the alert and is constantly experimenting in the mimicking of anynote, song, or sound that it may hear. However, only a comparativelyfew are so versatile, and not every individual catbird indulges in suchextensive mimicry.The song of the catbird has never impressed me as conveying theexpression of sadness, yet that is the way it appealed to the ChippewaIndian naturalist who named it Ma-ma-dive-hi-ne-shi^ meaning thebird that cries with grief.In correspondence received from Francis H. Allen he writes:
"Catbirds vary more than most birds in their powers of song. Oneyear I had one on my place in West Roxbury, Mass., that hardly eversang anything more than one, two, or three short phrases at a time,usually only two, which I memorized as William-see-me. Sometimesit was William and nothing more. Again my catbird another yearmay be one with an astonishing repertoire, including sweet phrasesof his own and a number of striking imitations. One of these accom-plished musicians imitated the crested flycatcher, wood pewee, bluejay, tow^hee (song), scarlet tanager (song), red-eyed vireo (song),black-poll warbler (song), brown thrasher, and robin. Sometimes acatbird will surprise one with a wholly original and unexpected vocalperformance. On May 15, 1942, the catbird that had sung fairlysteadily near my house for some days was silent almost all day butin the afternoon broke his silence with a succession or raucous, quiteunmusical, and uncatbirdlike notes of varied character but alwayshigh-pitched and often repeating the same note or phrase many timesin succession. These notes were delivered in the manner of a song, thebird being stationary and with no other bird nearby. Sometimes thebill was open and sometimes to all appearances closed, but the pulsa-tions of the throat were always plain to be seen. It was as if thisbird had lost his voice, but later I heard some ordinary catbird strainsfrom him.708066?48 23
342 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
"Catbirds can utter uncatbirdlike notes on occasions of excitementas well as calm. On May 29, 1916, in West Roxbury, I heard from athicket a curious harsh note, that I did not recognize, repeated severaltimes. It suggested a jay's scream with a little of a downy-wood-pecker quality. This was followed by a sweet warbled phrasegiven three or four times; then came the strange harsh notes again.My first thought was of a chat, and I was surprised when I found thenotes came from a catbird that was flying about closely pursued byanother. The birds kept up the performance for 10 minutes or sobefore I left them. The singer discontinued the harsh notes soon butkept up the sweet warbling notes and gave from time to time othersong notes of a catbird character besides the mew, the chatter, and thesharp chip. The song notes were uttered disconnectedly, except thatone might be given two or three times in succession, and were fre-quently given on the wing, perhaps oftener on the wing than whenthe bird was alighted. The pursuing bird would sometimes almoststrike the singer and alight beyond him and sometimes would stop5 or 10 feet short of him. This one was silent, but once when it alightednear me I saw it opening and shutting its bill in a threatening manner.The two were on the wing most of the time, the stops being very short,and they dodged hither and thither among the branches, flying prettyswiftly, but kept inside an area perhaps 30 or 40 feet square. Whetherthis was courtship or territory defense I cannot say, but it evidently wasnot a combat a outrance.
"Again, on May 12, 1938, in West Eoxbury, at about 8 p. m. withthe temperature about 45? F., I heard a strange medley of squawksand discordant cries interspersed with repetitions of high-pitchedphrases of a more melodious character coming from a wet spot inthe woods. Again I could think only of the yellow-breasted chat,but again I found that catbirds were responsible. In this case therewere three or four of them flitting about low in the trees andbushes. After keeping up this performance for some time, duringwhich not a single one of the notes suggested a catbird to me, theyseparated, and at least two and I think three of them sang normalsongs for a short time. The strange notes were various in charac-ter, some having a jarring quality. The high-pitched notes wereusually, if not always, repetitions of a single phrase over and overagain."The catbird sings from the time of its arrival in spring untillate in July or August but with decreasing regularity toward theend of this period. According to A. A. Saunders (MS.), "someindividuals cease singing about the time the last ^gg is laid, and donot resume singing again till the young are out of the nest severaldays." Saunders says further
:
CATBIRD 343In some cases the second or third nest is built before ttie young of theprevious nest are out and in such cases the song is not resumed. The averagedate for cessation of song in 14 years in Allegany State Park, N. Y., is July 28with the latest date August 11, 1940. In Connecticut it seems to last alittle longer and in the Adirondacks I did not hear it after July 4. This birdrarely sings in the fall, and then the song is generally primitive, that is,faint, whispered, and rather indefinite in form. I have heard it October 22,1927, September 24 and October 9, 1932, September 3 and 5, 1937, and October8, 1939.Francis H. Allen writes (MS.) that in September lie lias hearda catbird utter a note resembling chip-tit^ the last syllable veryshort and fainter than the other, coming like a sort of echo of thefirst. Mr. Allen has also recorded the notes of the young as follows
:
"From young able to fly well, a sharp high-pitched chippering notewith something of a thrill to it at times. It suggests a familiarnote of the slate-colored junco. Also from the young a coarse chipsuggestive of the scarlet tanager. They utter a very warblerlike psspwhen begging for food, a note that changes from day to day to achip or hick. Then again they utter a high pitched /ee."Enemies.?Because of the nature of the usual nesting site, a situa-tion in low dense often marshy thickets and usually near the ground,the catbird frequently becomes a victim of various species of snakes.C. J. Clarke (1915) relates an experience at Lenox, Mass., inwhich a milksnake was found to have swallowed a newly hatchedcatbird, which it had taken from a nest. The victim was rescuedand, though rather the worse for its adventure, was still alive andwas carefully returned to the nest. The next day the youngsterwas still alive, with a third fledgling in the place of one of the eggshe had noted the day before. Hugh Spencer (1928) writes of thepersistence of a blacksnake in taking the young from a catbird'snest at Chester, Conn. A member of the family called his attentionto a blacksnake that was robbing the nest. He arrived just intime to see the big snake departing while the parents and severalother birds cried and scolded. He was unable to get to the nest,which was in a low swamp huckleberry bush surrounded by a thicketof wild-rose brambles. Two young remained. He returned to hiswork, and in a short time the clamor arose again, but by the timehe reached the nest another young had been taken. The experiencewas repeated, but the snake was frightened, leaving the last youngdying on the ground. R. T. Morris (1925) writes of seeing a black-snake suspended loosely among the branches of a tree with its headwithin a few inches of a catbird's nest. It was being violently at-tacked by four catbirds, two kingbirds, a male oriole, and a wrenthat had come to help the catbirds in distress. The bird mob wonthe battle, and the snake was driven away. The catbirds continued
344 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMto harass the snake until it was 100 feet away at a place where itwas finally shot by Mr. Morris. G. M. Sutton (1928) reports twocases of catbirds' eggs destroyed by blacksnakes at PymatuningSwamp, Pa. There are many reports of eggs and young thathave been ravaged by snakes, indicating that the latter rank as oneof the worst enemies of nesting catbirds. Catbirds that build theirnests in the yards and gardens near the homes of man are subjectto attacks by the domestic cat. E. D. Nauman (1912) relates anexperience in which a pair of nesting catbirds were being molestedby a cat at 11 o'clock at night. He was attracted to the nestingsite by the fluttering and distress calls of the adults. The cat hadclimbed the nesting boxelder tree and was within 2 feet of the nestwhen it was violently driven away by the use of a club. The pairwas not molested again and succeeded in rearing their young.Rats also may be a factor in the lives of the catbirds. In correspond-ence received from Hervey Brackbill he writes as follows : "Less than10 minutes after a young bird, on its first day out of the nest, hadfluttered from a bush to the ground and hopped off into a little woodlot, a rat appeared, slowly nosing its way in the same direction.Quickly one of the catbirds came on the scene and, perching on onething and another?twigs and a wire fence?just above the rat, fol-lowed it along, queuh-ing continuously. The rat paid no attention,but went into the brush pile about 25 feet short of the young bird.The parent then perched here and there on the brush pile, still calling,until finally the rat reappeared and began working slowly back theway it had come. Now the adult catbird actually dropped to theground and hopped after the rat, sometimes only a foot or two behind,queuh-ing^ and even held its ground when once the rat half turned andgazed at it for a second or more. Only when the rat had gone about25 feet from the young bird did the parent's alarm subside; then itstopped calling and flew back to the fledgling."Catbirds nesting in more remote situations along forest fringes aresubject to prey by predaceous mammals and birds. P. L. Errington(1935) found that Midwest foxes include the catbird in their food.W. J. Breckenridge (1935) in his ecological study of Minnesotamarsh hawks found the catbird among other birds in the food eatenby these birds. A. H. Howell (1932) states that the duck hawk feedson the catbird. Etta M. Morse (1923) found the remains of a catbirdin the stomach of a long-eared owl that had molested a brood of cat-birds she was observing near her home in AVoonsocket, S. Dak. Theserepresentative records indicate that predaceous birds and mammalstake their toll of catbirds.There have been instances in which the catbird has been molested orevicted from their nests by other passerine birds. Mrs. George W.Trine (1935) states that the eggs of a catbird were destroyed by
CATBIRD 345bronzed grackles. W. L. Burk (1938) relates a case of a catbird thatbuilt a nest and laid one egg. A brown thrasher removed the egg,appropriated the nest, and reared its brood. W. M. Orford (1929)writes that a pair of cardinals that appeared in a thicket containinga newly built nest of a pair of catbirds repeatedly chased the rightfulowners away and took possession of the nest. The cardinals addednew nesting material and apparently settled down to use the structure.When the nest was visited 2 days later it contained a single egg of thecowbird and was deserted.Casualties.?H. B. Wood (1934) and others report catbirds beingkilled on the highways by speeding motor cars. H. F. Lewis (1927)reports that catbirds w^ere killed by flying into various lighthousesduring the time of migration. Several of the lighthouse keepers alongthe coast of Maine have told me that catbirds are frequent victims attheir stations during the migratory flights. Robert Overing ( 1938) , inreporting on the 1937 fall migration at the Washington Monument,mentions the catbird as being killed by flying into the structure. Theseinstances lend support to the view that the catbird flies chiefly at nightduring its migration and spends the daytime resting and feeding inpreparation of the next leg of its journey. Weather also proves to bea factor in the mortality of the species. A. T. Wayne (1899) writesthat a large number of birds including the catbird perished duringthe great cold wave of February 13-14, 1889. Mrs. G. W. Trine ( 1940)states that catbirds were killed by a terrific wind and hailstorm atEed Cloud, Nebr., on June 22, 1940.Diseases and parasites.?Bird banders who have trapped catbirdshave found them subject to certain diseases. T. E. Musselman ( 1930)
,
in his banding operations at Quincy, 111., trapped a catbird that hadboth legs badly diseased up to the tarsal joints. He writes: "Heavycellular proliferation resulting in grayish crusts and knots nearlydoubled the size of the bird's legs. So burdensome were the incrusta-tions that the bird could fly only with gi*eat effort and walking waspractically an impossibility." H. A. Allard (1930) writes concerninga catbird with a deformed bill observed in his garden at Arlington,Va. The bill was deformed in such a way that the upper mandible didnot close upon the lower in a normal manner. The bend of the uppermandible was somewhat past the middle toward the nares and formedan angle of about 45? with the plane of the lower mandible, exposingmuch of the inside of the mouth and tongue. He did not see it feedbut the bird appeared well nourished and lively.The majority of catbirds are infested by a few and some by manyexternal parasites. H. S. Peters (1933, 1936) reports the catbird to behost to the louse Myrsidea incerta (Kell.) ; the two bird flies Ornltho-myia avicularia (Linn.) and O. anchineuria Speiser; the two mitesLiponyssus occidentalis Ewing and L. sylviarwm (C. & F.), and the
346 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtwo ticks Haemaphysalis leporis-palustris Packard and Ixodesbnmneus Koch.The catbird is subject to parasitism by the cowbird. A. C. Bent hasinformed me of a catbird's nest that he found in an ash tree about 6feet above the ground, in Nelson County, N. Dak., on June 14, 1901.The catbird was incubating four cowbird's eggs and one of its own.Mr. Bent states that the cowbird's eggs were of two different types,suggesting that they had been laid by two different individuals.Dr. Herbert Friedmann (1929), the foremost authority on the cow-bird, states that the catbird is an uncommon victim and that as far ashe knows the cowbird has never been definitely reported to be success-ful with this bird. The few published records range from Maine,New York, and Pennsylvania to Indiana and North Dakota. Experi-ments were tried to see whether the catbird could distinguish her owneggs from the eggs of other species. In every case the foreign eggswere ejected by the catbird, Nuttall (1903) also states: "On placingan egg of this species [cowbird] in the Catbird's nest it was almostinstantly ejected." It is obvious that the catbird is very intolerant offoreign eggs. "It is worthy of note," says Dr. Friedmann," that whilethe catbird seems to know enough to distinguish between its own andother eggs and to get rid of the unwelcome additions to its nest, if aleaf is laid lightly over the nest it does not seem to know enough toget rid of it but will sit on the leaf as though trying to incubatethrough it."The eggs of the Nevada or sagebush cowbird (Molothrus aterartemesiae) as well as those of the eastern cowbird {Molothrus aterater) have been found in nests of the catbird.The yellow-billed cuckoo sometimes lays its eggs in the nests of otherbirds of which the catbird is a known victim. Nuttall ( 1903) in writingof the yellow-billed cuckoo stated : "Careless in providing comfort forher progeny, the American Cuckoo, like that of Europe seems at timesinclined to throw the charge of her offspring on other birds. Ap-proaching to this habit, I have found an egg of the Cuckoo in the nestof a Catbird; yet though the habitation was usurped, the intruderprobably intended to hatch her own eggs." O. Widmann (1882)writes of a similar experience as follows : "I was not a little astonishedto find last Saturday, June 4, 1881, an egg of a Yellow-billed Cuckooin a Catbird's nest. The Catbird's nest contained only one egg of itsrightful owner; another Catbird's egg was found broken on theground. The Cuckoo's egg was fresh, but the Catbird's egg was incu-bated." Robert Dresser (Webster, 1892) took a catbird's nest onMay 20, 1892, which contained four eggs of the catbird and one eggof the yellow-billed cuckoo.H. Miller (1891) reports a most astonishing mixup in which a cat-bird's nest containing two eggs of the catbird and two eggs of the
CATBIRD 347cowbird were incubated by a brown thrasher. There were no eggsof the thrasher.Banding and longevity.?Many catbirds have been banded, but withrelatively few exceptions the hundreds of returns have been madeat or near to the places where they were originally banded. Amongsome of the exceptions Lincoln (1939) reports a catbird banded atSchoharie, N. Y., on May 24, 1927, that flew into a house at Tela,Honduras, on October 25, 1929. Another catbird banded at North-ville, S. Dak., on September 20, 1936, was killed at Tuxpam, Veracruz,Mexico, about January 1, 1937.A number of longevity records of the catbird have been reported.Miss Marion A. Boggs (1935) reports two catbirds banded at her sta-tion at Waynesville, N. C, which were at least 7 years old when lastseen. One adult banded July 7, 1924, returned each year until May25, 1930. The other a female banded on July 2, 1926, also returnedeach year; the last date of trapping was April 22, 1932. A catbirdbanded at Demarest, N. J., on May 25, 1926, was retrapped at thesame place on May 23, 1934, and again on May 8, 1935, a longevityrecord of 9 years (F. C. Lincoln, 1939). That tlie above records maybe unusual is emphasized by the work of Geoffrey Gill (1940), whohas presented the analysis of returns of catbirds banded at his stationat Huntington, Long Island, N. Y., over a 10-year period. Mr. Gillbanded 1,134 catbirds of which 489 were adults, 579 immatures, and66 fledglings. At the time of his report 99 individuals had made atotal of 158 returns to his station. Of the 99 birds to return 63 werebanded as adults, 35 as immatures, and only 1 as a fledgling. In regardto the longevity of the birds Mr. Gill writes as follows
:
Of the 58 individuals returning which were banded previous to 1936, only 2are known not to be less than 5 years old. Of 75 returning individuals bandedprevious to 1937, only 15 are known to have lived at least 4 years, while of 86returning birds banded previous to 1938, 36 are known to be at least 3 years old.Taking the age of the oldest banded bird recorded at this station and assumingthat this age divided by two, would give the average life-span of a catbird, itwould place the average at around 2^/^ years. Such a theory is substantiatedto a degree by banding records, but, due to the large element of chance in thetrapping of wild birds, a large number must be banded and must return to thesame traps before any conclusions can be drawn.Winter.?There are so many winter records of the catbird that itsoccurrence in the North during the time of cold weather and snow doesnot seem unusual. Some of the individuals have been reported as beingnumbed or stupefied by extremely low temperature, but others seemto live successfully under the adverse conditions of a northern winter.Some of these records have been mentioned under the section pertain-ing to food and need not be repeated here.The catbird is a common winter resident in the southern States, butmany of them continue on to Central America as far south as Panama.
348 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMH. H. Kopmaii (1915) states that the catbird reaches southern Loui-siana about September 10 and becomes abundant shortly after Sep-tember 20. By the early part of November most of them have passedon. C. W. Beckham ( 1887) , writing of the catbird at its winter home inLouisiana, states that it is of retiring habits and exclusively a denizenof the woods and dense thickets and so few know of its presence.William Brewster (1882b) states that in the South the local birdsdo not mix with the strangers. When seen the catbirds occur in flocksin the timber.During January 1928 I saw two catbirds on a banana plantation atiNIonte Verde, Costa Rica, and it gave me a real thrill to see thesefriends so far from home. They seemed preoccupied in searching forfood as they worked through and about the vegetation in the neigh-borhood of the plantation house. The catbirds were seen for severaldays, but at no time did I hear them sing or even utter a simple note.They seemed to keep aloof of the resident birds of that tropicalenvironment. DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southern Canada to Panama.Bleeding range.?The catbird breeds north to southern BritishColumbia (Bella Coola and Soda Creek) ; central Alberta (Belvedereand Edmonton) ; Saskatchewan (Carlton House and Prince Albert) ;southern Manitoba (Lake St. Martin, Shoal Lake, and Lake of theWoods) ; southern Ontario (Kenora, Sault Ste. Marie, Lake Nipis-sing, and Ottawa) ; southern Quebec (Blue Sea Lake and Quebec) ;New Brunswick (Woodstock and Fredericton) ; possibly PrinceEdward Island (Stewarts Mill) ; and Nova Scotia (Wolfville andPictou) . East to Nova Scotia (Pictou and Halifax) and the AtlanticCoast States south to North Carolina (Raleigh and Wilmington) ;western South Carolina (Spartanburg and Greenwood; two recordsfrom Charleston) ; and Georgia (20 miles above Savannah). Southto central Georgia (20 miles above Savannah, and Macon) ; centralAlabama (Montgomery) ; also a few in north-central Florida (Wa-keenah, Gainesville, and Dade City) ; Mississippi (Jackson and Ed-wards; also occasionally on the coast) ; northern Louisiana (Monroeand Shreveport) ; northeastern Texas (Huntsville, Corsicana, andDallas) ; Oklahoma (Norman and Kenton) ; northern New Mexico(Santa Fe). West to central northern New Mexico (Santa Fe andRinconado) ; western Colorado (Fort Lewis and Grand Junction) ;central northern Utah (Provo and Ogden) ; eastern Oregon (French-glen, Harney County, La Grande, and Weston) ; Washington (Pres-cott, Pullman, and Lake Chelan ; also has occurred at Bellingham) ;and British Columbia (Chilliwack and Bella Coola). The catbird isresident in Bermuda.
CATBIRD 349Winter range.?In winter the catbird is found north to southernTexas (Brownsville, Matagorda, and Cove, rarely to Giddings)
;
southern Louisiana (Cheniere au Tigre and Southport) ; Mississippi(Edwards and Biloxi) ; Alabama (Mobile) ; southern and easternGeorgia (Fitzgerald, St. Mar3^s, and Savannah) ; eastern South Caro-lina (xliken and Charleston) ; and eastern North Carolina (Washing-ton and Lake Mattamuskeet). East to North Carolina (Lake Mat-tamuskeet and Ocraeoke) ; the Bahamas (Abaco and WattlingIslands) ; western Cuba (Habana, Santiago de los Banos, and Isle ofPines) ; Cayman Islands, Nicaragua (near Bluefields) ; Costa Rica(Limon and Cauita) ; and western Panama (Almirante, and casuallyto the Canal Zone). South to Panama. West to Panama (Almiranteregion) ; eastern Costa Rica (Giiacimo) ; central Nicaragua (SanRafael del Norte) ; central Guatemala (Los Amates and Coban) ;Tabasco (Frontera) ; Veracruz (Mirador) ; Nuevo Leon (near Lin-ares) ; and Texas (Brownsville and Giddings)
.
The catbird has been found in winter occasionally as far north assouthern New Hampshire, southern Michigan, northern Iowa, andSalt Lake County, Utah.Migration.?Some late dates of spring departure from the winterhome are: Panama?Almirante, April 23. Nicaragua?Bluefields,April 17. Honduras?Tela, April 22. Guatemala?Oaxactum, April27. San Luis Potosi?Tamazunchale, April 28. Cuba?Habana,May 1. Bahamas?Berry Island, April 20. Texas?Somerset, May9. Louisiana?New Orleans, May 13. Mississippi?Biloxi, May 20.Florida?Daytona Beach, May 3.Some early dates of spring arrival are: Alabama?Birmingham,April 15. Georgia?Savannah, March 14. South Carolina?Co-lumbia, April 5. North Carolina?Winston-Salem, March 29. Vir-ginia?Lexington, April 6. District of Columbia?^Washington,March 21. West Virginia?French Creek, April 17. Pennsylvania
?
Beaver, April 21. New York?Rochester, April 18. MassachusettsDennis, April 3. Vermont?Rutland, April 27. Maine?Lewiston,May 2. Nova Scotia?Wolfville, May 12. Quebec?Quebec, May 10.New Brunswick?Scotch Lake, May 13. Arkansas?Helena, April12. Tennessee?Knoxville, April 5. Kentucky?Bowling Green,April 9, Missouri?St. Louis, April 6. Ohio?Oberlin, April 13.Ontario?Toronto, April 22. Indiana?Terre Haute, April 23.Michigan?Ann Arbor, April 12. Iowa?Ames, April 25. Wiscon-sin?Madison, April 23. Minnesota?Duluth, May 1. ManitobaWinnipeg, May 5. Oklahoma?Tulsa, March 13. Kansas?April 25.South Dakota?Vermilion, April 29. North Dakota?Cando, May16. Saskatchewan?Indian Head, May 3. Colorado?Boulder, May9. Wyoming?Cheyenne, May 12. Montana?Great Falls, May 5.Alberta?Camrose, May 12. British Columbia?Sumraerland, May 16.
350 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSome late dates of fall departure are : British Columbia?OkanaganLanding, September 8. Alberta?Camrose, September 14. Mon-tana?Bozeman, September 26. Wyoming?Laramie, September 24.Saskatchewan?Eastend, September 18. North Dakota?Fargo, Oc-tober 17. South Dakota?Sioux Falls, October 10. Nebraska?^Lin-coln, October 3. Kansas?Clearwater, October 6. Oklahoma?Tulsa,October 17. Manitoba?Aweme, October 1. Minnesota?Minne-apolis, October 5. Iowa?Sioux City, October 1. Missouri?KansasCity, October 12. Wisconsin?Racine, October 10. Illinois?LakeForest, October 14. Michigan?Grand Rapids, October 30. On-tario?Ottawa, October 7. Ohio?Columbus, October 28. Tennes-see?Nashville, October 18. Quebec?Montreal, October 3. NovaScotia?Wolfville, October 3. Maine?Portland, October 13. NewHampshire?Concord, October 9. Massachusetts?Boston, Novem-ber 9. New Jersey?Elizabeth, October 28. District of Columbia
?
Washington, November 13. Virginia?^Lawrenceville, October 13.North Carolina?Raleigh, October 15. Georgia?Athens, October 13.Some early dates of fall arrival are : Florida?St. Augustine, Sep-tember 25. Mississippi?Bay St. Louis, September 11. LouisianaNew Orleans, August 15. Texas?Brownsville, October 1. CubaHabana, October 10. Honduras?Tela, October 25. NicaraguaBluefields, October 28. Costa Rica?Guacimo, September 11. Pan-ama?Cocoplum, Boco del Toro, October 24.Some interesting notes on the migration of the catbird are foundin the recoveries of banded birds, only a few of which can be cited.Three birds banded in Massachusetts were found the following winterin North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, respectively. Onebanded in New York was found two years later at Tela, Honduras.One banded in Wisconsin was found in Kentucky during fall migra-tion, and one from Ohio was taken in Mississippi. A catbird bandedat Lansing, Mich., on September 24 was found near Slidell, La.,on October 31 of the same year. One banded at St. Petersburg, Fla.,in January was found the following June in Westchester County,N. Y.Casual records.?The northernmost record for the catbird is aspecimen collected at Hazelton, British Columbia, on June 10, 1921.A specimen collected on the Farallon Islands on September 4, 1884,is the only record for California. There are two records for Ne-vada?a specimen from Cave Spring, Esmeralda County, on June18, 1928, and one observed at Alamo, on May 1, 1924 ; also two speci-mens from Arizona?one collected at Springerville on June 7, 1915, andone from Tunitcha Mountains, June 25, 1927. On May 5, 1930, onewas observed near Alfalfa, El Paso County, Tex. There is a singlerecord from Haiti, a specimen collected on Tortue Island, on Febru-ary 5, 1917. On March 22, 1932, a specimen was collected at Para-
BROWN THRASHER 351
cote, Panama, on the Pacific slope. The southernmost record is ofa specimen taken at Cienaga, Colombia, on March 23, 1917.A specimen was collected on October 28, 1840, on the island ofHelgoland, in the North Sea.Egg dates.?Colorado : 5 records. May 6 to July 3.Illinois: 58 records. May 18 to July 11; 33 records. May 26 toJune 10, indicating the height of the season.Massachusetts : 76 records. May 3 to August 15 ; 50 records. May24 to June 5.Minnesota : 21 records. May 12 to June 28 ; 11 records, June 2 to 13.Washington : 4 records, June 15 to 28.West Virginia: 51 records. May 4 to June 22; 40 records, May11 to 31. TOXOSTOMA RUFUM RUFUM (Linnaeus)BROWN THRASHERPlates 66-70HABITSThe well-known and popular brown thrasher occurs over a widerange in eastern North America, from southern Canada to the Gulfcoast and Florida, and from the base of the Eocky Mountains to theAtlantic coast. The 1931 Check-list extends its breeding range south-ward to central Florida, but now it is known to breed occasionally,if not regularly, as far south as Miami. It breeds abundantly as farsouth as Georgia.Its haunts, its habits, and to some extent its disposition vary some-what in different portions of its range. These variations were firstcalled to our attention by Miss Althea R. Sherman (1912), who pub-lished an interesting paper on the subject; the points that she sug-gested will be referred to farther on.During some 60 years of acquaintance with the brown thrasher ineastern Massachusetts, I have formed a somewhat different impressionof it from that gathered from the published accounts of it in morewestern and southern regions. Ever since I was a small boy, thecatbird has lived and raised its young in my father's yard, and morerecently in my own yard, every year, and this close to the center of thecity of Taunton, almost within a stone's throw of brick and mortar.But the thrasher never has nested here, and only on rare occasionshave I seen a straggler in my yard. And my experience has beensimilar to that of other observers. Here the thrasher is essentiallya bird of the rural, woodland, and farming districts, living in bushypastures, sproutlands, brier patches, tangles along fences, dry thickets,brushy hillsides, and the edges of woodlands, almost always far fromhuman habitations. On large estates and in parks or reservations,where there are scattered woodlands and plenty of shrubbery, the
352 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMbrown thrasher may find a congenial home, and here it may build itsnest close to a house; but such cases are exceptional in New England,so far as I can learn; as a rule, our thrashers are shy, retiring birdsof the more open countryside.Miss Sherman (1912) writes:In eastern Massachusetts it is said to be a nesting bird of the woodlands,rarely coming close to the homes of men to build its nest. This may in partbe due to the pruned, trimmed and shaven condition of trees, shrubs and lawns.I remember once seeing a pair nesting in a hedge quite near a house at QuakerHill in eastern New York. It is a bird that seeks a bit of thick and tangledgrowth in which to build, but in Iowa it finds such places to its taste in theman-planted trees and shrubs that grow upon prairie soil, usually not farfrom human homes. It is eminently a house-yard bird, although it sometimesnests in patches of bushy second growth that have sprung up on clearings madein the woods.Dr. W. G. Erwin (1935) made his extensive studies of the brownthrasher on the campus of George Peabody College for Teachers, inNashville, Tenn., where several pairs nested near the buildings andin the shrubbery, in spite of much human activity. At FairmountHill, a suburb of Wichita, Kans., Dwight Isely (1912) found tliisbird ''in large numbers all over the city, and in the parks. Its nestsare very abundant in osage orange hedges. In May and June the oldbirds, followed by the young, may be seen on the lawns everywhere,pulling worms out of the ground. They feed also in the fields and afew follow the plow." And, in Kansas City, Mo., according to HarryHarris (1919) , "they breed freely within the city in the same districtsand in the same kind of brushy cover as the Catbird. The two speciesdo not nest close together, however, as they are mortal enemies duringthe breeding season and have been known to battle to the death over adisputed nesting site." Similar habitats are frequented in other west-ern and southern States, which are quite different from our conceptionof the haunts of the brown thrasher in New England ; perhaps, if wehad more neglected brush heaps and tangles of unkempt shrubberyand vines about our grounds, we might tempt the thrasher to bemore sociable and nest near our homes.Spring.?Many of the early-spring birds, the bluebird, the robin, thephoebe, the grackle, and others, have come to Massachusetts duringMarch and the early April days; they have advanced and they haveretreated as gentle spring struggled to overcome relentless winter;but, during the last 10 days of April, when the pussy willows aredecorated with golden tassels, the swamp maples are glowing withbright red blossoms, and the shadbush and the cherry trees are in fullbloom, it seems as if spring had really come, with nature awakeningall about us. Then we may look for the coming of the brown thrasher.As we walk along some country road on a bright spring morning,warmed by the rising sun and the soft south wind, we may see him
BROWN THRASHER 353perched in the top of some wayside tree or on some tall bush on theborder of the woods, pouring out his delightful song, with his headheld high, his bill wide open, his long tail drooping, and his wholeframe vibrating with the ecstasy of his song. We may imagine thathe is telling the farmer in the adjacent plowed lot how to plant hiscorn; at least, his words seem to say so; but, more likely, it is justan outburst of joy, to announce that he has found his summer home,a warning to any rival that he claims this territory, or an invitationto an expected mate to come and join him in his homemaking. Whata thrill of springtime pleasure such a scene must give to the appre-ciative mind ! I pity the sordid soul that can pass it by unheeded,for he misses much of the beauty in the world about him.Territory.?Each pair of thrashers has a definite breeding territory,which it defends during the nesting season. The male arrives somedays in advance of the female and begins at once to look the regionover with a view to selecting his territory ; at first he is furtive andquiet but soon announces his choice in his loud outburst of song, aninvitation to liis mate. The actual nesting site, probably selected bythe female, may or may not be very near the singing tree. Aretas A.Saunders writes to me : "In the spring of 1923 I noted during earlymorning walks that a brown thrasher sang daily from a small treealong a roadside in Fairfield, Conn. The bird sang from April 27to May 13. On the 14th, not hearing the song at first, I soon discov-ered the bird in a tangle of weeds and blackberry almost directlybeneath the singing tree. Another bird, evidently the female, waswith him and he was following her around on the ground, singingconstantly a song like the normal one in form but so faint I could nothave heard it had I not been very close to the birds. After that timeI no longer heard this bird in song and did not see it or its mateagain until May 22, when I discovered the nest with four eggs and abird incubating them. The nest was in almost the exact spot whereI had observed the courtship and almost directly beneath the singingtree of late April and early May."Another experience of his was quite different. On a small hill nearhis house was a dense thicket of sumacs, rambler roses, and othershrubs, in which for a succession of years a pair of song sparrows andlater a pair of catbirds had nested. "The catbirds nested there until1938. That spring the male catbird arrived and sang as usual, and aweek or so later his mate arrived. On May 18, when the catbirdswere just beginning to gather nesting material, a pair of brownthrashers arrived rather suddenly ; they at once took over the thicketand started nest-building. I saw no fighting between them and thecatbirds. The latter simply retired to a neighboring yard.
"I had heard no thrasher song anywhere near my home, and I didnot hear it now. The birds had simply moved in from elsewhere after
354 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthey had become mated. The nest was soon finished and the eggs laid.During the period of incubation, I heard the male thrasher sing a fewnotes one day, but that was all the song I heard from the bird thatsummer. They produced a brood of young successfully.
"I believe that both the brown thrasher and the catbird are terri-torial in nesting behavior. But in this region the catbird is extremelyabundant and the thrasher only fairly common. For catbirds terri-tory is scarce, but for thrashers it is abundant. Evidently a pair ofthrashers can have their pick of territory, once they are mated, bysimply taking that of the catbirds. So they often move elsewhereafter the mate arrives, whereas catbirds must stick to the territorythey have selected.
"So, it seems from this observation that the male thrasher does notalways select the nesting territory, but merely one to which it firstattracts a mate by its singing. The nesting territory, in some cases atleast, is selected after the mating has taken place, and then it wouldseem likely that the female would have more to do with the selectionthan her mate."From Dr. Erwin's (1935) studies of the territorial behavior of thebrown thrasher on Peabody College campus, "it seems that the maleThrasher selects a desirable area immediately after arrival, and re-mains in this area for 10 or more days before beginning his song. Theauthor was unable to secure data which would indicate whether terri-torial fights occurred within this interval or not." He continues
:
An effort was made to locate the boundaries of the territories of each pair ofThrashers on Peabody Campus. The method used was the observation of thelimits of their feeding grounds and the locations and results of territorial fights.* * * There seemed to be a definite tendency for the Thrashers to adoptbuildings, driveways, walks, and shrubbery rows for boundaries in many cases.After a territory was established, the activities of the particular pair of Thrash-ers seemed to be almost entirely confined to this area. All nests of the seasonwere built within this territoi'y. * * *Thrashers almost always object to the presence of other Thrashers in theirterritory, although they usually do not object to the presence of birds of otherspecies so long as they do not go near their nest, or do not interfere with theirfeeding activities.Courtship.?The loud, tree-top song of the male is the first step inthe courtship performance, the curtain raiser, as it were. It will benoted from the above account that the male does not begin to singimmediately on his arrival but waits until he can expect the arrivalof a possible mate, a matter of perhaps 10 days or 2 weeks. Then heissues his loud invitation, which, under favorable circumstances, maybe heard at a long distance. This song is also a challenge to rivalmales, and territorial fights between the rivals may occur during theearly stages of courtship. When the male and the female finally cometogether, the song of the male becomes so subdued and soft that it is
BROWN THRASHER 355
almost inaudible, as the pair play about close together under the shrub-bery. Dr. Erwin's (1935) records show that the male "sang verysoftly when the female was nearby, but when she flew away he also[as did another] began to sing much louder, as if to call her back, andat one time followed her a short distance, singing on the wing."The more intimate part of the courtship is not easily seen, as itusually takes place under dense cover, but Dr. Erwin has published thefollowing account of it in his excellent paper
:
April 29, 9 : 00 a. m., both male and female were observed under the shrubberyat the right of the exit. The female hopped out in the grass away from theshrubbery about 10 feet and began to dig in the gi'ound with her bill. Afterabout 5 minutes the male came out a distance of about a foot from the shrubbery.The female picked up a small twig in her bill and hopped back to the male,fluttering her wings as she went, after which she dropped her twig and flutteredher wings vigorously, giving soft chirps. No further activities were observed asthey searched for food among the leaves for 8 minutes. Then the female hoppedout on the grass, again secured a twig, and began to flutter her wings and givesoft chirps as before. The male picked up two dead leaves and hopped towardher, whereupon she fluttered her wings even more vigorously and issued chirpsa little louder. Both dropped the materials held in their bills and engaged incoitus. Both birds then hopped down the shrubbery row, the female gatheringtwigs and fluttering her wings several times, after which both went under theshrubbery.He did not see any show of display or strutting in this or othercourtship antics. Audubon (1841b), however, says: "The actions ofthis species during the period of courtship are very curious, the maleoften strutting before the female with his tail trailing on the ground,moving gracefully round her, in the manner of some pigeons, andwhile perched and singing in her presence, vibrating his body withvehemence,"Brown thrashers do not always remain mated through even onebreeding season. Samuel Elliott Perkins, 3d (1930), has shown thisto be so in at least some cases by banding and recovering adultthrashers during the rearing of their first and second broods. Hereports "a case of a pair of birds changing mates 2 months after theyhad raised a brood together, under conditions which proved that itwas not the seeking of a new mate after the death of the previous one."In this case, each of the original pair was trapped and found to bepaired with a new mate. He continues: "We have had four otherpairs of Brown Thrashers in the same area under observation, whereonly one of each pair was a banded bird. The inference seemsirresistible that after each brood is raised there is a complete shufflingof mates among the Brown Thrashers." Apparently the brownthrasher is no more constant in its marital relations than is the housewren. Arthur T. Wayne (1910) was told by a man he consideredreliable of a female brown thrasher being mated with a male mocking-bird.
356 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMNesting.?I have been surprised to read in the literature and in con-tributed notes that, throughout the western and southern portions ofits range, the brown thrasher very seldom builds its nest ui:)on theground, for that is certainly not the case in New England, or at leastin eastern Massachusetts. Miss Sherman (1912) writes:In Iowa I have never found a nest nearer than 18 inches or 2 feet of theground, one of these being in the lower branches of a spruce tree, the other In abrush pile. Another was found built in a brush pile, but farther from theground, these are the only nests thus situated that have been found, but brushpiles on prairie land are rare. The next locations nearest the ground are wherenests are built in such bushes as gooseberry, lilac, and syringa, when they arefrom two to three feet above the ground. The highest nest situation found wasone in a tame crabapple tree about ten feet up; other trees frequently used arespruce, willow, apple, and plum trees in which a majority of the nests are aboutfive feet from the ground.A. Dawes DuBois has sent me his data on 19 nests, found in Illinois,only one of which was on the ground "under a large, cattle-eaten bushin a pasture"; he remarks that this is the only nest he ever found onthe ground. His other nests were mostly in bushes, hedges, or lowtrees ; one was 3 feet from the ground in a large osage-orange hedge,and one was in the top of an apple tree.Frank W. Braund's data sent to me show five nests, found in Ohio,all 21/2 to 4 feet up in bushes or small trees. One nest found nearJackson, Tenn., but not collected, was of rather unusual construction,being made of coarse gi'asses, with a few leaves, and lined with finegrass.There is a set of six eggs in my collection, taken by W. L. Griffinin Pulaski County, Ky., that came from a nest 15 feet from theground in a gum tree ; the eggs were evidently laid by two females,as tAvo of them were more heavily marked than the other four ; fur-thermore, three adult birds appeared and made the usual demon-stration while the eggs were being taken.Evidently none of the nests studied by Dr. Erwin (1935) at Nash-ville, Tenn., was on the ground ; his lowest nest was a foot from theground in a thick growth of smilax; one pair of thrashers started anest 14 feet up on a horizontal branch of a maple but never com-pleted it. Of the 59 nests examined, nearly 80 percent were between2 and 7 feet above ground ; onl}'^ nine were higher and three lower."The most common locations for nests on Peabody Campus wereGolden Bell {Forsythia sp.) and Privet {Ligustrwn sp.). Othershrubs and smaller trees were occasionally used."W. Leon Dawson (1903), referring to Ohio, writes: "Nesting sitesare various, but the bird shows a decided preference for those whichare naturally defended by thorns. Nearly every full sized Crategus(thorn apple) has at one time harbored a nest. Hedges of osage-
BROWN THRASHER 357orange are well patronized?almost exclusively so * * * fur-ther west?and the honey-locust tree is not forgotten. Next afterthese come wild plum thickets, grapevine tangles, brush heaps, fencecorners, and last of all, the ground." He shows a photograph of anest in a corner of a Virginia rail fence.H. O. Todd, Jr., tells me that out of 109 nests found in Tennessee,only one was on the ground.It is rather unusual for a thrasher to build its nest close to a house,but several such cases have been reported; E. S. Cameron (1908)reports a nest built close to a window in his house on his ranch inMontana; and E. D. Nauman (1930a) writes: "Wliile myself andfamily were living on a farm near Thornburg, Iowa, some yearsago, we had a thriving rose bush standing directly in front of thekitchen window and close up; so close in fact that some of thefoliage and roses touched the glass. One season the Brown Thrash-ers {Toxostoma rufum) made their home in the rose bush. Theirnest was twenty inches from the window glass." The birds werenot in the least disturbed by activities within the house.The only report I can find of any considerable number of brownthrasher nests on the ground in the Middle West comes from Ed-monde S. Currier (1904) in Minnesota. He says: "Several nestsseen, and all of them were sunken in the ground after the mannerof a Towhee's. In Iowa I have seen the nest thus placed, but itis very unusual, and it is strange that the Leech Lake bird should])refer such a situation, though there must be a reason."On the contrary, ground nests are common in New England. Onelialf of the nests in southeastern Massachusetts, as recorded in myfield notes, were on the ground under bushes, trees, or thickets. Theothers were in bushes, small trees, or brush heaps; the highest nestI find recorded was only 4 feet from the ground in an arborvitae.Frederic H. Kennard's notes for the vicinity of Boston record 23nests, 10 of which were on the ground. All authorities seem to agreethat, in this region, ground nests are of common occurrence, es-pecially on the higher lands, where the ground is warm and dryand where the thrasher evidently prefers to nest.Eggs of the brown thrasher have been found in the nests of otherbirds. There is a set of eggs in the American Museum of NaturalHistory, in New York, taken by H. B. Bailey on June 5, 1886,near South Orange, N. J. It was taken from a wood thrush's nest,which contained four eggs of the thrush, incubated about 7 days, andtwo fresh eggs of the thrasher. Thrasher eggs have also been foundin nests with those of the mockingbird, the robin, and the cardinal.Dr. W. C. Herman (1923) tells of a remarkable dual nest, in which
"the foundation was typical of that of the thrasher, while the center75806G?48 24
358 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMwas that of the robin, both nests being well made and complete in everydetail." His photograph of it shows four eggs of the thrasher and oneof the robin. The thrasher was on the nest, which was afterwarddestroyed by some unknown enemy. E. D. Nauman (1930b) found athrasher incubating on its nest, with two of its own eggs and two ofthe cardinal under it. The cardinal's eggs were evidently depositedabout a week after incubation had begun on the thrasher's eggs, forthe next time he visited the nest it contained two young thrashers andtwo eggs of the cardinal, on which the latter bird was incubating.This nest also came to grief.Dr. Erwin (1935) gives a very full account of the building of thenest, in which both birds take part, and a good description of the com-position of the nest
:
The later nests were more poorly constructed than the earlier ones. Five toseven days were usually required for the construction of the earlier nests, vphileonly three to four days vpere required for the later ones. It also seemed thatthe type of location of the nest had something to do with the amount of materialsused.Twenty-three nests were carefully examined to discover the architecture andmaterials of construction. The nests were composed of four concentric layers,or baskets. The first basket was composed entirely of twigs, usually from fourto twelve inches long and from ^Ae to 14 of an inch in diameter. The secondbasket was composed principally of dead leaves. A few pieces of paper, thinbark, and tiny twigs were sometimes used. The third basket was composed oftiny twigs and grass stems. In a few of the later nests this basket was almostcompletely lacking. The fourth basket, or lining, was usually composed of well-cleaned rootlets, mostly from grasses. In a few cases petioles of the HoneyLocust were used exclusively.He gives an account of the building operations in too great detailto be quoted here. The birds had considerable difficulty in carryingthe twigs through the thickly entwined branches of the shrubbery;often the twigs were left hanging where they were caught, and some-times they were recovered but sometimes not. When the female ap-parently discovered a desirable place, "with her bill she pushed thetwigs closer together, then got on the thickly matted stems and beganthe movements in which many birds engage during nest building.She intermittently lowered her head, relaxed her wings, and withrapid jerks shifted her feet sidewise." This method of nest-shapingwas continued with each of the successive layers. At one nest he notedthat the female made 28 and the male 21 trips to the nest between 2 : 45and 4 : 40 p. m.Soon after the young have left the first nest, the female starts build-ing a second nest, leaving the male to care for the first brood of young.At one nest the young left the nest on May 5, and on May 10 the femalewas discovered putting the lining into the second nest. Anotherfemale was seen completing a second nest 11 days after the young hadleft the first nest. Mr. Saunders tells me that a pair that he watched
BROWN THRASHER 359
"produced a brood of young successfully, which left the nest on June15. On June 17 they began a second nest. Incubation of the secondset began on June 24."Nesting sites in the South are apparently similar to those in theMidwest?^liedges, shrubbery, brush heaps, thickets, grapevine tangles,vines, and trees. A. H. Howell (1932) states that "Nicholson founda number of nests at Orlando [Florida] in oak and orange trees, 8 to20 feet above the ground." Frederick V. Hebard mentions in hisnotes from southeastern Georgia a nest in a "sea-myrtle bush about 20inches above ground. This nest was badly constructed of dried grasssupported by twigs, one of which was over 14 inches long. Corn huskswere in the nest. The nest had an inside diameter of 3% inches, aninside depth of seven-eighths inch, and an outside depth of 3% inches."Another nest was in a camphor tree, 7 feet above ground.Eggs.?Nearly all the nests of the brown thrasher of which I haverecord contained either 4 or 5 eggs, generally 4 ; the one set of 6 eggsin my collection was evidently the product of 2 females. Eggs werelaid in 52 of the nests examined by Dr. Erwin (1935) in Tennessee;31 contained 4 eggs, 13 contained 3 eggs, 7 contained 5 eggs, and onecontained only 2 eggs. Six eggs have been recorded.The eggs are not handsome, but they show considerable variationin color and shape; they are usually ovate, but some are somewhatelongated and some are short-ovate. The ground color is very paleblue, bluish white, or white, with sometimes a greenish tinge. Theyare usually rather evenly covered, more or less thickly, with verysmall spots or fine dots of reddish brown or duller browns. Some-times the markings are so small, scarce, and faint as to make the eggappear almost white. Very rarely a set of eggs is immaculate. Occa-sionally the markings are grouped in a ring around one end. A rareand handsome type has a darker green ground color, with bright red-dish spots. The measurements of 50 eggs in the United StatesNational Museum average 26.5 by 19.4 millimeters ; the eggs showingthe four extremes measure 30.2 by 19.8, 26.7 by 21.3, and 21.3 by 16.3millimeters.Young.?The period of incubation is stated by several observers tovary from 11 to 14 days, according to weather temperatures andother conditions. Dr. Erwin (1935) says: "Of the 32 nests in whicheggs were laid on Peabody Campus, only 17 were successfully incu-bated. Nine of these required a period of 13 days, six 12 days, one11 days, and one 14 days. The set of eggs which required 14 days wasin an early nest." Both sexes shared in the duties of incubation.During a period of 14 hours 15 minutes, the female incubated 9 hours11 minutes; and the male sat 3 hours 51 minutes, about 27 percent ofthe total time, perhaps to give the female a chance to feed. "For 12successful nests on Peabody Campus, the average nestling period was
360 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM11 days. Two of the nests had young with a nestling period of 13days. Both of these nests were early. The nestling period for onenest was 12 days, for four, 11 daj^s, for four, 10 days, and for one, 9days."He noted that both parents helped to feed the young in the nests.A total of 8 hours 6 minutes on parts of five days was spent in obser-vation of the feeding process at two nests. He says
:
During this period, the different females made a total of 40 trips to the nestwith food, and the males, 31 trips. This food consisted almost entirely of whitegrubs, soft caterpillars, and earth worms. A small part of the time was spentin brooding, this duty being shared both by male and female. Most of theperiods of brooding occurred in the early morning when the weather was cooland the young still were without a full coating of feathers. On one occasion thefemale, being unable to cover the five young, used her bill to pull them towkrdher. Both male and female always inspected the nest for excreta before goingon to brood. Excretion always occurred immediately after the nestling, ornestlings, were fed. The excreta was encased in a transparent bag, which pre-vented it from soiling the nest while being removed. The excreta from thevery young birds was almost always eaten, while that from the older nestlingswas usually carried away and dropped. * * *In cases where a second nest was built after young were successfully broughtoff the preceding nest, the female remained to help care for the young only afew days, after which she built the second nest without assistance of the male,his duty being to care for the nestlings. There were only two nests in whichthis occurred during the year. The other nestlings were brought off too late, dueto previous failures, for the adults to build another nest. In two instanceswhere the female did not build another nest after the young were brought olf,the young were divided, the male taking a part of the young, and the femalethe remainder. Also in these two instances, the territory was also divided.* * * After the first brood of young became independent, it seemed thatthe male returned to assist the female in the care of the second brood.Dr. Ira N. Gabrielson (1912) made a careful study of a brood ofyoung brown thrashers in Iowa; the nest was on the ground, whichhe remarked was unusual ; when it was discovered, on June 17, it heldfour young, "not more than 24 hours old," and an addled egg ; a blindwas set up near the nest and observations began on June 23 and con-tinued until the young left the nest on June 28. He says
:
[On June 23] the afternoon was hot and sultry and the nest was in such aposition as to be exposed to the hot rays of the sun. One or the other of theold birds bi'ooded almost all of the time. During the afternoon, the malebrooded once for a period of 26 minutes and the female for 20 minutes, but theperiods as a rule were short, being from 2 to 5 minutes in length. At about2 o'clock the shadow of an oak tree was thrown on the nest and the old birdsceased brooding. * * * There was a marked difference in the position as-sumed by the male and female in brooding. The male sat on the edge of thenest with his feathers ruffled up, or stood in the nest in much the same posture,affording very poor protection for the young as compared with that given bytbe female. She spread her wings, ruffled her feathers, and stood in such aposition as to completely shade the nest.
BROWN THRASHER 361He made a careful record of the food given to the young and pub-lished a long list of insects, larvae, spiders, and worms supplied. "Thefour insects consumed in the largest quantities were found to be asfollows : grasshoppers 247, Mayflies 425, moths 237, and cutworms 103.Two of these, at least, are positively destructive insects; and m thesmnmer of 1911 the grasshoppers were almost a plague in parts ofnorthern Iowa. Many fields of grain were destroyed and many morewere cut green to prevent destruction, making the oats light weightand poor quality. The grasshoppers stripped the oats from the strawby cutting the stem of each grain. This was done while the grainwas in the milk, so it was a total loss."A record was kept of the number of feedings by each parent eachday ; the longest and largest record was made on June 27 ; from 3 : 30a. m. to 9 : 00 p. m. the male fed the young 98 times and the femalefed them 186 times, or a total of 286 feedings, including twice that theyomig were fed without the sex of the parent being known. In orderto determine the quantity of food received by each nestling, the youngbirds were marked with green, orange, blue, and white thread. "FromJune 26 at 4: 11 p. m., until Green left the nest on the 28th, at 12: 19p. m., he was fed 152 times; Orange 142 times; Wliite 169 times; andBlue 133 times. Orange was a small and active bird ; White was largeand inactive, but seemingly possessed of plenty of strength; Bluewas weak and timid." The total amount distributed during this time,parts of 3 days, was 976 insects, or an average of 219 to each youngbird. Gabrielson continues
:
Sometimes it seemed as if cliance determined which individual would receivethe morsel, and at other times looked as if there were other factors. Therteseemed to be a tendency to feed the one nearest the parent bird, and, as the oldbirds almost invariably approached the nest from the south, it would followthat the nestling on that side would get the most food. However that may be,the young were constantly trying to get to that side of the nest. One would nosooner get into place on that side than another would crowd him out. This wasnot always the case, for at times the parents would reach over and feed thoseon the farther side. Again it seemed as if the nestling that made the greatestdisturbance received the food.The nest was kept scrupulously clean through the efforts of bothparents ; on June 27, from 3 : 30 a. m. to 9 : 00 p. m., the nest was cleaned18 times by the male and 38 times by the female.Three interesting facts were noted in connection with the passage of theexcreta : viz., the young birds made no attempt to void the excreta except whenone of the parent birds was present ; second, only one of the nestlings voided theexcreta at any one visit of the parent birds ; and third, almost always the birdfed, or if two were fed, one of the two voided the excreta. * * * The resultsof these observations seem to indicate that the feeding may possibly be the directstimulus to the voiding of the excreta, as out of a possible 112 times 104 sacs ofexcreta were removed from the nestling receiving the food at that visit, while
362 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
only eight were removed from different birds. The parents always stopped a fewseconds after feeding, possibly waiting for the appearance of an excreta sac.In the case of the nestling voiding the excreta, there were usually some premoni-toiy signs: viz., general uneasiness, ruffling the feathers, and flirting the tail.Then followed the elevating of the posterior end of the body, and as the sac cameaway the parent bird seized it and either devoured it or carried it away. * * *It would seem * * * that about the eighth or ninth day the old birds ceaseddevouring the excreta and commenced to carry it away. * * *At about noon, June 28, the young birds became very restless, especially Greenand Orange. They were continually crawling out of the nest and backagain. At 12 : 30 p. m. Green crawled out of the nest and sat chirping fora short time. He then spread his wings and made an attempt to fly, but onlysucceeded in going a few inches. Immediately on falling he commenced to hoprapidly away ; stopping a short interval at a fence about 10 feet distant. Oneof the old birds returned at this time and coaxed him along until he reached thetop of a little hill some 60 yards away. * * * At 2 : 10, Orange left the nestin much the same way. The male went with him and by coaxing him a shortway at a time soon had the second nestling on the little knoll occupied by Green.The male busied himself the rest of the day caring for these two while the femalefed White and Blue in the nest.The next morning White started away at 7 : 07 and was coaxed along by thefemale for about 30 yards. Blue remained alone in the nest until 7 : 45, beingfed only once in the interval, though White was fed three times. 7 : 45 Blue leftthe nest, but no parent bird returned to aid in the journey as long as the obser-vations were continued. At 8 : 15, when the observations ceased, Blue was stillalone in the grass. Later all four of the fledglings were found in the ravinenearby. They were noticed here several times, July 25 being the latest date onwhich they were positively indentified.Amelia R. Laskey tells me that "a fledgling fed by hand, but givenfreedom, was noted singing a very soft song on July 24, when 44 daysold. This song was similar to the autumn singing heard each year inAugust and September in the garden."A. L. Pickens sends me the following note on the method used bya thrasher in coaxing its young from the nest : "The young had beenhatched in a rose vine at the edge of our front porch and were at thatstage where they could clamber out of the nest and perch in the sur-rounding vines. They could not fly, but the old bird seemed anxious tohave them leave a spot so frequently examined by human eyes. Coax-ing having failed, the parent resorted to strategy. She came to thenest with a small piece of paper so folded and compressed together asto resemble, especially in size, the morsels of food usually brought tothe young. This she held temptingly first above one young one's mouth,then above another's. But as the young beaks were expectantly ex-tended she raised or withdrew the bogus morsel still farther away.Then she flew away to a short distance still temptingly holding the bitof paper. At last one of her offspring, fluttering and clambering,dropped to the ground, and she began leading it along a route that ledthrough the yard and grove, evidently to the denser growth of a smallwood nearby. Fearing for the young's safety I captured it and
BROWN THRASHER 363brought it back to the nest amid angry protests from the parent. Inthis outburst she dropped her imitation morsel, and I took particularpains to carefully retrieve and examine it.Plumages.?I have not seen any young brown thrashers in nataldown. The juvenile plumage is softer and looser, less compact, andeasily recognized. It resembles the adult plumage in pattern but ispaler and duller throughout; the top of the head is darker and therump lighter, and all of the upper surface is more or less streaked orspotted with dusky ; the wing bars are buffy, and the tertials are edgedand tipped with buffy ; the underparts are dull white, the streaks andspots being more nvmierous and less sharply defined. The iris in theyoung bird is gray.A postjuvenal molt occurs late in summer or early in fall, beginningthe last of July, and involving the contour plumage and most of thewing coverts, but not the rest of the wings or the tail. This producesa first winter plumage, which is practically indistinguishable fromthat of the adult at the same season.Adults have one complete annual molt, the postnuptial, in July andAugust. In fresh fall plumage the colors are darker and richer thanthey are in spring, the upper surface being deep cinnamon-rufous, andon the lower surface the throat, sides, and crissum are washed withochraceous-buff ; the wing coverts are cinnamon-rufous, and the wingbands are buffy white. There is no evidence of a spring molt, but wearand fading are considerable, the buffy shades disappearing and thewhole plumage becoming more or less ragged before midsummer.The sexes are alike in all plumages.Food.?E. H. Forbush (1929) gives a very good account of thefood of the brown thrasher, based largely on Prof. Beal's (Beal, Mc-Atee, and Kalmbach, 1916) report:An examination of 266 stomachs of the bird from various parts of the countrywas made by Prof. F. E. L. Beal of the Biological Survey, and it showed that thefood consisted of 37.38 percent vegetal and 62.62 percent animal food, the latternearly all insects. The insect food was rather evenly divided among the variousorders. Beetles were eaten regularly the year round. Such pests as Maybeetles, white grubs, twelve-spotted cucumber beetles, many weevils, includingthe cotton-boll weevil, curculios, snap-beetles and wire-worms, rose-beetles,strawberry-crown girdlers and wood-boring beetles, caterpillars, includingcanker-worms, army-worms, cut-worms and hairy caterpillars such as the tentand gipsy caterpillars, also bugs of many kinds, especially those that eat berries,also leaf-hoppers, tree-hoppers and cicadas, quantities of grasshoppers andlocusts and many crickets are eaten, also many of the ants that destroy timber.A small proportion of beneficial ground-beetles are taken, and very few waspsand bees ; daddy-long-legs, sow-bugs, small batrachians, lizards and snakes aretaken more or less.Professor Beal (Beal, McAtee, and Kalmbach, 1916) says that beetlesform the largest item in the thrasher's food, 18.14 percent ; caterpillarscome next, 5.95 percent ; other insects are eaten in much smaller quan-
364 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
tities, as are also spiders, myriapods, crawfisli, snails, and angleworms.
''Bones of lizards, salamanders, and tree frogs (in all, 0.92 percent)were found in 11 stomachs." He gives the thrasher credit for destroy-ing only 2.43 percent of gi-asshoppers and crickets for the year, with amaximum of 8.5 percent in September, whereas Dr. Gabrielson (1912)says that, at the time of his study in Iowa, 20 percent of the food of oldand 3^oung thrashers consisted of grasshoppers.Of the vegetable food. Professor Beal (1916) writes
:
The vegetable food of this bird is nearly equally divided between fruit anda number of other substances, of which mast is the most prominent. Wild fruit,the largest item in the vegetable portion (19.94 percent), was eaten every monthin varying quantities, the month of maximum consumption (45.69 percent) be-ing September ; January and February, with dried-up fruit from the last summer'scrop, stand next. Altogether about 30 species of wild fruits or berries wereidentified in the stomachs. Those most eaten are blueberries, huckleberries,hoUy berries, elderberries, pokeberries, hackberries, Virginia creeper, and sourgum. Some seeds not properly classified as "fruit" were found, as bayberry, su-mac?including some of the poisonous species?pine, and sweet gum.Domestic fruit, or what was called such, was found in nine months, fromApril to the end of the year, most of it (53.19 percent) in July. Raspberriesor blackberries, currants, grapes, cherries, and strawberries were positivelyidentified by their seeds, but as all of these grow wild, it is probable that muchthat is conventionally termed domestic fruit is really from uncultivated plants.The aggregate for the year is 12.42 percent.Mast, principally acorns, was estimated at 23.72 percent for theyear, and grain only 2.57 percent. "The grain w^as nearly all corn,with a little wheat, but from the season in which it was taken mostof it evidently Avas waste." The thrasher has been accused of pullingup planted corn, but this is probably local and restricted to a fewindividual birds.W. L. McAtee (1926a) mentions some additional insects, eaten bythe thrasher, that are injurious to wood lots, such as nut weevils, thewild cherry-leaf weevil {Epicaerus i'mbri?atus) , oak weevil {Eupsalisminuta), and the yellow-necked caterpillar {Datana mmistra) ; and,also to the above lists, he adds the Japanese beetle, clover-root weevil,billbugs, and the chinch bug, as of more interest to the agriculturalist.The brown thrasher spends most of its time on or near the groundand obtains the greater part of its food there. One may often beseen foraging among the fallen leaves on the ground under trees orshrubs, or in more open spaces. It apparently seldom scratches forits food, as do the fox sparrow and the towhee, but uses its long, strongbill much as a haymaker uses a pitchfork in spreading hay; thus,with powerful sidewise strokes, it sends the leaves flying in all direc-tions, and then stops to pick up what desirable morsels it finds beneaththem. In this way it works diligently over considerable ground, oc-casionally picking up a leaf to cast it aside but more often pitchingthem away with its closed bill. Some writers have suggested that
BROWN THRASHER 365his name may have come from this habit of thrashing about amongthe leaves and rubbish; another suggestion is that his habit ofthrashing large insects or other prey on the hard ground to kill ormutilate them has suggested the name; a still more fanciful notioncame from someone who had been thrashed by the bird in the defenseof its nest.Milton P. Skinner (1928) writes of its feeding habits in NorthCarolina:One was seen that picked the ground for a time and then alternated itspicking strokes with some sidewise scoops of its bill. Later it ran swiftly alongfor 6 feet and caught an insect that was flj'ing low. Another Thrasher wasseen making flycatcher-like sallies from the ground, and later from well upin an oak. They sometimes chase lively, erratic insects through the grass,and at other times adopt the Flicker method of digging down a good inch anda half into the sandy soil, probably for grubs. Brown Thrashers sometimespick up acorns and carry them away in their bills, and later open them as theJays do. But they are ground birds, unlike the Jays, and when they try tosplit the shell from an acorn by pile-driver blows, they often drive tlie acorndown into the soft ground. In spite of this difficulty, they persevere and theshell eventually flies off. I have seen one eat a shelled acorn in a few bites.Apparently, acorns are an essential part of their winter food.He says that thrashers "occasionally fly up on the weed stalks andpluck the seeds direct" and also that they are very fond of sumacberries; one "ate for some minutes, quite stripping the head of allfruit; then rested a few minutes before eating another score of theberries." He adds that they sometimes eat persimmons and smilaxberries but found that sumac berries were a favorite food in December.Behavior.?As suggested by Miss Sherman (1912) and as mentionedin the first part of this account, there seems to be some variation in thegeneral behavior and in the disposition of the brown thrasher in NewEngland from what has been noted in the Midwest and South. InMassachusetts I have always regarded it as a shy, retiring, and some-what unfriendly bird, shunning human society and especially hostileto the intruder near its nest. In other parts of the country, it seemsto be more sociable, more friendly, and more inclined to make its homein parks in towns and villages, or even cities, in gardens, orchards, andclose to human dwellings. These are not, however, hard and fastrules, for there are exceptions in both cases.The thrasher is one of the most valiant and aggressive defenders ofits nest and young among all our small birds, exhibiting the greatestbravery and boldness. While the late Herbert K. Job and I werephotographing birds near West Haven, Conn., on June 5, 1910, wefound a thrasher brooding her young in a nest 5 feet from the groundin a thick bush. She allowed Mr. Job to stroke her on the nest beforeshe left and then set up a loud cry of protest and defiance, which soonbrought her mate to join in the attack. As I attempted to examine
366 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe young, both birds flew at me and attacked me savagely ; they flewat my face, once striking a stinging blow close to my eye and drawingblood ; within a few seconds I was struck on the side of my head, and wedecided to withdraw from the scene of the battle, leaving the bravebirds masters of the situation. Mr. Job had had a similar experiencewith fighting thrashers a few years previously; they attacked hishands, when he attempted to touch the young, and scratched and bitholes through the skin.Mrs. Amelia R. Laskey, of Nashville, Tenn., writes to me : "Almostall brown thrashers show much concern when I look into the nest orremove young for banding. Most of them scold or squeal excruciat-ingly as if suffering intense pain. I have found several individualsthat were very pugnacious in attacking me and very bold in their closeapproach. Olie bird struck the top of my head with great force,apparently striking with both feet. Another made a swift stab at mytemple, striking with its beak with such force as to draw blood.Another attacked the hand, removing and replacing the young forbanding purposes, with such venom that drops of blood stood onseveral fingers from jabs made by its beak,"Mr. DuBois tells me of one that attacked him, alighting on his backand swooping down repeatedly to strike his hat. And there are otherpublished reports of similar behavior toward human and otherenemies. Dr. B. H. Warren (1888) writes: "When their home isinvaded by a black snake, they assail such intruder in a most vigorousmanner. I once saw a dog, which had upset a nest containing youngThrushes, forced to make a speedy retreat when attacked by the oldbirds, who flew at his head and struck him in the eyes." Dr. T. M.Brewer wrote to him as follows
:
I found a nest containing three eggs, which I removed, leaving in their placesthree Robin's eggs, and retired to wait the issue. In a few moments the femaleapproached, gave the contents of the nest a hasty survey, and immediately flewoff. She returned in a short time in company with her mate, and both flew tothe nest apparently in the greatest rage, took each an egg in their claws, anddashed it against the ground at a distance of more than a rod from the nest, thefemale repeating the same to the other egg. This done, they continued for sometime to vent their rage on the broken eggs, tossing them about, and at the sametime manifesting their displeasure in every possible way. They afterwardsforsook the nest.But not all thrashers are too shy, hostile, or vindictive. In regionswhere they are closely associated with human activities, notably in theMidwest, some individuals have become quite tame and friendly, comefreely to feeding stations, bathe in bird baths, and have on rare oc-casions been induced to feed from human hands (see Bird-Lore, vol.10, p. 253, and vol. 20, p. 299) . Sidney E. Ekblaw ( 1918) reports thefollowing interesting experience:
BROWN THRASHER 367
It was in the latter half of June that the brown thrasher first appeared at ourhome near Rantoul, 111. My mother and sister were at work on the back porchwhen the bird alighted on the ground. Its apparent tameness attracted theirattention, and when it flew to a nearby fence-post my sister went out to it.When she approached, the bird flew to her shoulder, where it stayed contentedlyfor at least 3 minutes.For 2 days it stayed about the place, not in the least afraid, in no wise con-cerned about household activities carried on about it. It allowed the variousmembers of the family to pet it, while it perched upon an arm or shoulder ; it atecherries that my brother fed it, while he held it in his hand ; and it showed notthe least objection to having its picture taken. The second day it disappearedand we saw it no more.The brown thrasher lives in the lower levels of the trees and shrub-bery, except when it mounts to the top of some outstanding tree tosing its springtime challenge. It is especially at home upon theground, where it probably spends most of its time, walking or runningwith short easy strides, or hopping about when in no hurry. If neces-sary it can run quite fast to catch some insect prey; or it can coverconsiderable ground with a series of long high hops, where walkingor running is not convenient. The use of its strong bill to obtain itsfood is explained in the section headed Food (p. 363)
.
Its flight is rather slow and, apparently, heavy ; its short wings arenot adapted for swift or protracted flight ; it usually flies low and notfor any great distances unless in crossing an open field or a river. Weoften see the long, brown bird in the middle of a country road, takinga dust bath in some dusty hollow, or picking up the grain in scatteredhorse droppings ; when thus disturbed, it spreads its long, handsometail, makes a short low flight, and disappears in the roadside shrubberyor glides over the top of a half-hidden stone wall and swoops downinto cover. It is equally at home in the thickets, running to coverwhen approached and dodging skillfully through the brier tanglesto escape.Mr. Skinner (1928) says: "They are very fond of bathing, espe-cially when the weather gets warm in spring. In earthenwaresaucers, they will bathe when it is as cold as 55? F., and when it iswarmer they bathe regularly twice a day. But they do not stop takingshower-baths just because artificial baths are available. They areeven out in steady rains, thoroughly shaking themselves as the heavyraindrops soak their plumage."We do not know yet quite how long birds may live, as we have notbeen banding birds long enough, or extensively enough, to be sure thatwe have trapped the oldest bird. Several brown thrashers have beenreported as from 8 to 10 years old, but the oldest one seems to be thebird reported by Miss Marion A. Boggs (1939) which, on the eleventhreturn, was at least 13 years old.Voice.?The brown thrasher is one of our best and most spectacularsingers ; his loud, striking spring song, once heard, can never be for-
368 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUAIgotten. Almost eveiy writer on American birds has commented on iiand mostly favorably.Dr. Winsor M. Tyler has given me his impression of it as follows
:
"The song of the brown thrasher is a brilliant performance, equaled,if judged solely by its technical skill, by few North American birds,and surpassed by perhaps only one, the mockingbird. Indeed, it issometimes difficult to distinguish the song of a thrasher, if an excep-tionally fine singer, from that of mockingbird.
"The thrasher's song is made up of a long series of short, sparklingphrases given rapidly, sometimes repeated two or three times in quicksuccession, but as the song goes on it displays a great variety ofphrases. To sing, the thrasher mounts to a conspicuous perch where,with the tail pointing to the ground, a characteristic pose of the wrenswhile singing, he devotes himself to his song, pouring out his loud,spirited concert, like a vocalist singing a solo.
"In Massachusetts the thrasher sings from its arrival late in April,with marked diminution during the nesting season, to the first weekin July. After this time it becomes silent and inconspicuous, and wesee it chiefly as a flash of cinnamon as it retires into the shrubbery."Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1924) writes the following appreciativenote on the thrasher's song
:
The Brown Thrasher, a near relative of the Mockingbird, has a more con-tinuous song and, at its best, one of great beauty and power not marred byharsh or disagreeable notes. His song consists of a series of couplets with hereand there an enthusiastic triplet or even a quadruplet. It is an inventive song.He is consistently improvising, but there is often the suggestion of mimicry asthe song wanders on and new phrases appear and are repeated. It is rare, how-ever, that one can recognize the source of the mimicry. I have detected thecall of the Bob-white and the melody of the Robin, the Bobolink and the Veery,but mimicry is not needed to complete the perfection of his song. He generallyavoids vulgar plagiarism, but doubtless profits by the musical suggestions ofother birds.W. L. McAtee (1940b) says: "I was much interested in the op-portunity afforded me near Vienna, Va., in June 1940 to make obser-vations on a mimicking thrasher {Toxostoma imfum). On a fewoccasions the song, beginning with imitations of some shrill-notedspecies suggested that of a Mockingbird until it lapsed into thegutturals and more deliberate phrasing characteristic of the thrasher'smusic. The birds that were imitated were all species commonly heardon the spot and included the Flicker, Cardinal, Tufted Titmouse,Crested Flycatcher, Yellow-breasted Chat, and Wood Thrush."Aretas A. Saunders (MS.) says: "The thrasher does not imitatebirds frequently, and I believe only a few individuals do so, whereasmany catbirds and practically all mockingbirds do so. I have heardthe thrasher imitate the phoebe, robin, wood thrush, white-eyed vireo.
BROWN THRASHER 369red-winged blackbird, Baltimore oriole, vesper sparrow, and fieldsparrow."The song of the brown thrasher is similar to those of the mocking-bird and catbird. Although the songs of the three eastern species aremuch alike in form, there are great differences in the seasons ofsong. The brown thrasher has the shortest period of all. The songceases, according to mj? records, on an average date of July 11. Theearliest date is July 6, 1921, and the latest July 18, 1940. When nest-ing begins individuals stop singing, so that the song is never so abun-dant late in May and in June as it is late in April and early in May.Birds usually sing until the eggs are laid and then cease until theyoung are out of the nest. Sometimes the second-brood nesting fol-lows the first so quickly that there is no singing between broods."The limits of pitch in the songs in my records are B ' ' to C ' ' ' ',one octave and three tones, and curiously just a half tone lower, inboth lowest and highest limits, than my catbird records."Alarm notes about the nest consist of a loud call much like thesound of a kiss, a whistled call lite teeola^ and a series of harsh, slurredcalls, like teea teea^ repeated six to ten times, gradually becominghigher in pitch and louder." The kiss note is a loud smack, or suck-ing kiss, something like the soimd made by the clicking of a heavypair of pruning shears, a most startling sound for a bird to makeand perhaps effective in frightening away small enemies. Thethrasher also makes a local hissing sound about its nest.Amelia K. Laskey writes to me from Tennessee : "There are lovely
'whisper' songs given in both spring and autumn. The late songsof the season are given in August and September. For September10, 1935, I have the following note: A brown thrasher sang almostan hour in very soft tone. It consisted mostly of low warblings butoften contained phrases similar to spring songs, all very clear, butinaudible a few feet away from the singer. September 14: The
'whisper' songs continue. The bird was perched today in shrubs about3 or 4 feet from the ground. It sang with closed beak. The songhad overtones with undertones of soft warbling, giving the impressionat times of a duet."The soft courtship songs, given while the birds are hunting nestingsites, have been referred to under "Courtship." Mrs. Laskey has ob-served this twice when she could see both birds.There are very few birds whose songs can be well expressed, oraccurately recalled to mind, by the use of human words or phrases,but it seems to me that the brown thrasher is one of them. The oft-quoted words, "drop it, drop it?cover it up, cover it up?pull it up,pull it up, pull it up," first written, I believe, by Thoreau in his
"Walden," as fancied advice to a farmer planting his corn, recall
370 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMto my mind most vividly the theme and the tempo of the thrasher'ssong, and I fancy that I can see him perched on the top of a tall birchtree beside the plowed lot. Many other wordings have been attributedto this versatile bird, but there is not room to quote them all here.One of the most elaborate versions is given by Mrs. H. P. Cook (1929)as one end of a telephone conversation, like this: "Hello, hello, yes,yes, yes. Who is this? Wlio is this? Well, well, well, I should say,I should say. How's that ? How's that ? I don't know, I don't know.What did you say? What did you say? Certainly, Certainly, Well,well, well. Not that I know of. Not that I know of. Tomorrow? To-morrow ? I guess so, I gaiess so. All right, All right, Goodbye, Good-bye." F. Schuyler Mathews (1921) suggests the following adviceto the farmer : "Shuck it, shuck it ; sow it, sow it ; Plough it, plough it
;
hoe it, hoe it." All these interpretations seem to suggest the songthat Forbush (1929) describes as "a succession of phrases of two tofour syllables, loud, clear, rich, musical and of great variety, eachone delivered as a positive statement complete in itself, and unre-lated to the rest, with a brief pause after it." Mrs. Nice (1931) madethe following careful observation: "An April 1, 1926 I noted thenumber of times a Thrasher repeated each phrase and found thescheme less regular than I had suspected ; it went thus : 2, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1,2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 1,. 2, 2, 2, 3, 1, 3, 4, 2, 3, 1, 3, 4, 2, 3, 2,
^? i^? Z/^ ^^ X.Tilford Moore, of St. Paul, Minn., tells me that, on April 30, 1941,he saw a thrasher singing as it flew between two perches ; it did thistwice.Field marks.?A brown thrasher could hardly be mistaken for anyother bird within its range. It is a long, slim bird with a long tail,bright reddish brown above, with two whitish wing bars on each wing,whitish beneath, streaked with blackish, a long bill and glaring, yelloweyes.Eneviies.?Nesting as it does on or near the ground, the eggs and3'oung of the thrasher are particularly vulnerable to the attacks ofprowling predators, such as dogs, cats, foxes, raccoons, skunks, weasels,probably squirrels, and snakes. Crows, blue jays, and perhaps gracklesmay rob the nests, if they can find them. Hawks, especially the accip-iters, may kill a few adults, though the thrashers are quite expertin dashing into thick bushes and hiding. I have several records ofcowbirds' eggs in thrasher nests, but Dr. Friedmann (1929) calls thethrasher "a decidedly uncommon victim of the Cowbird. This speciesis the largest passerine bii-d affected by the parasite, and is the largestbird definitely known to have hatched and reared a young Cowbird.J. A. Allen saw a female Brown Thrasher feeding a nearly full grownCowbird in Western Iowa in 1868. * * * As far as I know, thelate Dr. Allen's observation has remained unique to this day."
BROWN THRASHER 371Tilford Moore (MS.) saw a thrasher feeding three young cowbirds.Audubon's spirited plate shows a thrasher's nest being attacked bya blacksnake, with several thrashers rallying to the rescue. He(1841b) reports that the snake was finally killed and one injured birdrescued. I once saw a pair of thrashers making a great fuss around abunch of oak scrub, where I soon discovered the cause of their anxiety
;
a large blacksnake was coiled about their nest and had evidentlyswallowed the eggs or young, as the nest was empty. I tried to killthe snake, but the underbrush was too thick and it escaped.Thrashers are not immune from parasites, even while still in theegg. Bagg and Eliot (1937) publish the following note from LewisO.Shelley:The Thrasher is an uncommon summer resident here [Westmoreland, N. H.],and it is a curious fact that, of all the nests I have seen, each one harboredone or more "wormy" eggs. Outwardly seeming in perfect shape and condition,an egg turned over might reveal a neat round hole, one mm. in diameter, boredin the under side, or more than one such hole. I found that, if blown, the egg-shell crumbled after a short time, due to the lining being eaten together withthe yolk and albumen. By dissecting two eggs from a nest of half-fledged young,I found the grubs to be small white oval shapeless forms capable of greatelongation when feeding and very closely resembling, while smaller, the Tachinidsthat so commonly sting larvae of various Saturniidae caterpillars ; but themature insect is more closely akin, in form, to the 'Hymenoptera or membranous-winged flies, with well-developed maxillise, probably the organ wherewith theparasite drills an exit through the egg-shell when the time arrives. It is notablethat this parasite differs from the Tachinids in that it emerges at perfectionand not as a grub.Harold S. Peters (1936) lists three species of lice, five of mites, twoof ticks, and one fly, as external parasites on the brown thrasher.Winter.?The brown thrasher is a permanent resident throughoutthe southern portion of its range, but more or less migratory throughthe greater part of it. Most of the thrashers leave New England dur-ing fall, mainly in October, but there are a number of wintering recordsas far north as Massachusetts.Henry Nehrling (1893) gives a very good account of its migra-tion and winter haunts
:
Unobserved, silent usually from thicket to thicket, and in bushes alongstreams and rivers, the Brown Thrush migrates southward, ordinarily duringOctober. The Southern States, especially those bordering on the Gulf ofMexico, are the Brown Thrasher's winter quarters. I have found the birdin southeastern Texas from December to March. They usually remain nearthe water where thicket succeeds thicket. They are especially common wherethe magnolia, cherry-laurel, holly, dense blackberry and Mexican mulberrybushes, Cherokee roses, and vines of many species, grow. The ground swarmswith insects of many kinds, the old leaves cover larvae and snails, and thebushes are rich in berries. In these thickets the Brown Thrush leads a verysecluded existence, in company with the Hermit Thrush, Towhee Buntings,White-crowned and White-throated Sparrows, and others. It is here so shyand knows so well how to screen itself from view that it is but rarely seen.
372 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMHere, its call-notes are seldom heard. In the dense hammock woods of Florida,it is one of the most abundant winter birds. These woods usually consistof large deciduous and evergreen trees, with an undergrowth of low saw-pal-mettos? sparklebei-ry bushes, hollies, smilax, Carolina jasmine, and a host ofother tropical species. DISTRIBUITONRange.?Southern Canada and the United States.Breeding range.?The brown thrasher breeds north to southeasternAlberta (Red Deer region and Rossyth) ; southern Saskatchewan(Wiseton and Quill Lake) ; southern Manitoba (Brandon, Portage laPrairie, and Shoal Lake) ; southern Ontario (Lake Nipissing andOttawa) ; southern Quebec, probably (has bred at Montreal, recordedfrom Blue Sea Lake) ; and southwestern Maine (Waterville; has oc-curred at Dover) . East to southwestern Maine (Waterville and Port-land) ; and throughout the Atlantic Coast States to southern Florida(Miami and Cutler). South to southern Florida (Cutler and FortMyers) ; and the Gulf coast to southeastern Texas (Houston). Westto eastern Texas (Houston, Weatherford, Vernon, and Canadian)
;
eastern Colorado (Colorado Springs, Denver, Loveland, andWalden) ; eastern Wyoming (Wheatland and Douglas) ; easternMontana (Kirby, Billings, and Great Falls) ; and southeasternAlberta (Warner and Red Deer).Winter range.?The brown thrasher withdraws in winter to thesouthern part of its range. At that time it is found north to north-eastern Texas (Decatur) ; eastern Oklahoma, rarely (Oklahoma Cityand Tulsa) ; Arkansas (Van Buren and Tillar) ; western Tennessee(Memphis and Nashville, rarely) ; northern Georgia (Atlanta andAthens) ; northern South Carolina (Greenwood and Spartanburg) ;eastern North Carolina (Raleigh and Louisburg) ; and southeasternVirginia (Bowers Hill, Norfolk County). The species also migratessomewhat southwestward in Texas, reaching Victoria, San Antonio,Kerrville, Austin, and Waco.Individual birds sometimes spend the winter well north of the nor-mal winter range of the species, and have been found at that seasonas far north as Laramie, Wyo., southern Michigan, southern Ontario,Montreal, Quebec, and Massachusetts.The above ranges as outlined apply to the whole species, which hasbeen divided into two subspecies or geographic races. The easternbrown thrasher ( T. r. rufum) breeds west to Manitoba, eastern Kansas,and Texas ; the western brown thrasher {T. r. longicauda) breeds fromAlberta and Saskatchewan to Colorado and western Kansas.Migration.?Some early dates of spring arrival are: North Caro-lina?Hendersonville, March 21. Virginia?Lynchburg, March 20.West Virginia?French Creek, April 7. District of Columbia?Wash-
BROWN THRASHER 373ington, March ' 19. Pennsylvania?Pittsburgh, April 11. NewYork?Rochester, April 11. Connecticut?Hartford, April 18. Ver-mont?Rutland, April 27. Maine?Portland, April 27. Quebec
?
Montreal, May 8. Ohio?Columbus, March 28. Ontaria?Toronto,April 25. Indiana?Bloomington, March 17. Michigan?Detroit,April 7. Illinois?Olney, March 11. Wisconsin?Milwaukee, April12. Missouri?Kansas City, March 13. Iowa?Iowa City, April 14.Minnesota?St. Cloud, April 13. Manitoba?Winnepeg, May 1.Oklahoma?Caddo, March 8. Kansas?Topeka, April 5. Ne-braska?Omaha, April 11. South Dakota?Vermilion, April 27.North Dakota?Charlson, May 10. Saskatchewan?Regina, May 4.Colorado?Denver, May 4. Wyoming?Torrington, May 3. Mon-tana?Great Falls, May 13.Some late dates of fall departure are : Montana?Big Sandy, Sep-tember 7. Wyoming?^Wheatland, September 15. Colorado?Yuma,September 28. Saskatchewan?Eastend, September 21. North Da-kota?Fargo, October 3. South Dakota?Yankton, October 3. Ne-braska?Lincoln, October 7. Kansas?Hays, October 30. Manito-ba?Aweme, September 21. Minnesota?St. Paul, October 6. IowaSioux City, October 16. Missouri?Columbia, November 9. Wis-consin?Madison, October 14. Illinois?Chicago, October 20. Mich-igan?Grand Rapids, October 18. Ontario?Ottawa, October 20.Ohio?Toledo, October 26. Kentucky?Danville, October 19.Maine?Winthrop, October 1. Vermont?^Wells River, October 3.Massachusetts?Boston, October 16. New York?New York, October30. Pennsylvania?Germantown, October 23. District of Colum-bia?^Washington, October 15. West Virginia?Bluefield, October 2.Virginia?Lexington, October 10.Recoveries of banded birds throw some light on individual migra-tions. The following records are of birds taken during fall and winterin the winter range, all of which had been banded the previous sum-mer on the breeding grounds ! Of four taken in North Carolina, twocame from Massachusetts and one each from Long Island and NewJersey. The two found in South Carolina came from New Jersey andMaryland. The three found in Georgia were one each from Mas-sachusetts, Long Island, and New Jersey. In Alabama nine have beenrecovered as follows : one from Ohio, three from Indiana, three fromIllinois, and two from Tennessee. The four in Mississippi were : onefrom South Dakota and three from Illinois. Only two have beenrecovered in Arkansas, both of which had come from Illinois. The12 recoveries in Louisiana show the diversity of banding locality : onefrom New Jersey, one from North Carolina, one from North Dakotaone from Wisconsin, one from Indiana, five from Illinois, one fromIowa and one from Teimessee. In Texas have been found one from758066?48 25
374 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSaskatchewan, two from South Dakota, one from Indiana, three fromIowa, and one from Missouri. An adult banded on Long Island inMay 1932 was caught in a rat trap in Texas in March 1940.Casual records.?An individual was closely studied on August 20,1940, at Klamath Lake, Oregon. There are 4 records for California
:
one at Clear Lake, Lake County, in September 1870 ; one present atAltadena from December 1, 1932, to late March 1933 ; one near Holly-wood from January 13 to April 17, 1939 ; and one at Pomona in Marchand April 1940. A specimen was collected on December 9, 1935, at ZionCanyon, Utah, after the bird had been observed for several days. InArizona a specimen was collected on October 5, 1907, in the foothills ofthe Huachuca Mountains. On November 24, 1938, a specimen was col-lected a few miles north of Albuquerque, N. Mex. The brown thrasherhas been recorded twice at Grand Manan, New Brunswick, and a speci-men has been taken at Hamilton, Bermuda.Egg dates.?Florida: 20 records, March 25 to July 9; 10 recordsMay 3 to 25, indicating the height of the season.Georgia : 25 records, April 16 to June 20 ; 18 records, April 22 toMay 5.Illinois: 114 records, April 22 to July 5; 65 records. May 12 to 30.Massachusetts: 40 records. May 18 to July 8; 26 records. May 20to 31.Oklahoma : 16 records. May 4 to 29.South Dakota : 20 records, April 29 to June 19 ; 13 records. May 31to June 8. TOXOSTOMA RUFUM LONGICAUDA (Baird)WESTERN BROWN THRASHERThe familiar brown thrasher is one of comparatively few birdswhose name has always stood on our list as a binomial, in spite of thefact that the apparent existence of a western race was called to ourattention nearly 90 years ago. Professor Baird (1858) wrote, longyears ago: "Among the series before me are several specimens (5651,5652, 4703) differing in some noticeable points. They are considerablylarger than Pennsylvania ones, with decidedly longer tail and wings.The under parts are more decidedly rufous white ; the white band onthe wings tinged with the same. The concealed portion of the quills(including the shafts) is much darker brown, and the shafts of thetail feathers are dark brown, conspicuously different from the vanes.The spots on the breast are considerably darker, showing little, if any,of the reddish brown. * * * As a strongly marked variety, atleast, it may be well to call it H. longicauda^''The type specimen was taken in western Kansas, but the rangeextends to eastern Colorado and northward to Alberta and Saskatch-ewan ; it winters from Tennessee to Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas.
SENNETT'S THRASHER 375It is rather strange that it remained so long unrecognized until Dr.Oberholser (1938) included it as a "rare winter resident" in Louisiana,and Dr. Wetmore (1939) listed it from Tennessee.TOXOSTOMA LONGIROSTRE SENNETTI (Ridsrway)SENNETT'S THRASHERPlate 71HABITSSennett's thrasher was once supposed to be a variety of our commonbrown thrasher, which it superficially resembles, but it is now recog-nized as a northern race of a Mexican species. Its range coversnortheastern Mexico, the lower Rio Grande Valley, and as far northalong the southern coast of Texas as Nueces County. It differs fromour brown thrasher in having the upperparts darker and duller and thesides of the head and neck more grayish. It is somewhat larger thanthe type race of southeastern Mexico.We found this thrasher to be an abundant bird in Hidalgo andCameron Counties, in southern Texas. It was common in the mesquiteand cactus chaparral, but still commoner in the dense forests alongthe resacas or stagnant watercourses near Brownsville; these forestswere made up of some large trees, mesquite, huisache, ebony, pahns,etc., with a thick undergrowth of many shrubs and small trees, suchas granjeno, persimmon, coffee bean, and bush morning-glory.Nesting.?Dr. Herbert Friedmann (1925) found 25 nests of thisthrasher near Brownsville, containing either eggs or young, "prettyevenly scattered through the month" of May. We found a nest there,containing young on May 25, about which the old birds were verysolicitous. Two days later. May 27, 1923, in the same dense thicketsalong a resaca, we found three nests with young and one with threeeggs ; all these nests were over 4 feet from the ground, and the last was10 feet up ; the nests were very much like those of our common brownthrasher.George B. Sennett (1878), for whom this thrasher was named,found numerous nests in the above region ; he secured a score or moresets of eggs and examined many that he did not take. He writes : "Ofthose taken, the lowest was 4 feet from the ground and the highestsome 8 feet, averaging, I think, 5i/^ feet. I found their nests in avariety of places?prickly-pear cactus, Spanish bayonet, chaparral,and most commonly in the dense undergrowth under the heavier tim-ber. I saw no nest of this bird in an exposed position 'above the upperbranches'. Its usual position is in the very heart of the tree or plantselected, and, like most of the nests of this region, not capable of beingdetached from the thorny bushes without falling to pieces." He wasunable to detect any difference in position or structure between the
376 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
nests of this species and those of the mockingbird and curve-billedthrasher.There are four sets of eggs of Sennett's thrasher in my collection,one of which is said to have come from a nest in a mesquite bush, madeof thorny twigs and lined with grass and straws.Eggs.?Sennett's thrasher apparently lays anywhere from two tofive eggs to a set, four being the commonest number. What eggs Ihave seen are practically indistinguishable from those of the brownthrasher; they are ovate in shape and finely sprinkled with "cinna-mon" over a bluish-white or greenish-white ground. Mr. Sennett(1878) says: "The usual complement of eggs is four; in fact, I foundonly one clutch of five. * * * The typical ^gg has a ground-colorof the faintest greenish-white, and is finely speckled all over withbrown, the dotting being thickest at the larger end. Several setswere obtained with the ground-color yellowish-white, and so thicklyspeckled as to have a general color of ochre. One set is nearly purewhite, speckled thickly only in the form of a wreath at the largerend, otherwise very sparsely and faintly marked." He says else-where (1879) that four eggs "were usually laid in the first clutch inApril, while second clutches, late in May, contained generally three."Dr. J. C. Merrill (1878) writes: "The usual number of eggs is three,often two, more rarely four: the ground-color varies from greenishto reddish-white, more or less thickly sprinkled with reddish andbrownish dots and spots. One set is sparingly covered with largeclouded blotches, giving the eggs an appearance unusual in this genus."The measurements of 50 eggs average 27.3 by 19.8 millimeters ; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 30.0 by 20.3, 29.5 by 21.3, 24.4by 18.8, and 27.4 by 18.3 millimeters.Plumages.?The sequence of molts and plumages is evidently thesame as with the brown thrasher. The young bird in juvenal plumageis much like the adult, but the rump is paler and indistinctly streakedwith dusky ; the blackish streaking on the under surface is less clearlydefined ; and the whole body plumage is softer and looser.Food.?Cottam and Knappen (1939) analyzed the stomach contentsof three Sennett's thrashers and reported the following items : Ant-lions, 4 percent (one bird had consumed eight larvae of these peculiarinsects) ; termites 1 percent; grasshoppers, locusts, etc., 5 percent(some obtained by each bird) ; stink bugs, 9 percent; miscellaneoustrue bugs, 6.67 percent, formed a part of each meal; beetles, 30 per-cent; Tenebrionidae, 30 percent; ants, 13.33 percent; other Hymenop-tera, 1 percent; moths, 11.67 percent; miscellaneous insects, 2.67 per-cent; spiders, 2.67 percent; centipedes, 1.67 percent; fragments of asmall frog, 1.33 percent; fruit of hackberry, 7.33 percent; undeter-mined plant fiber, 2.66 percent. One bird made 23 percent of its lastmeal on hackberries.
SAN LUCAS THRASHER 377Mr. Sennett (1879) says that "it feeds upon the como and otherberries, as well as insects and larvae."The behavior, voice, and other habits of Sennett's thrasher seemto be similar to those of the brown thrasher, to which it is so closelyrelated. According to Dr. Friedmann (1929), it has occasionallybeen imposed upon by both the dwarf cowbird and the red-eyedcowbird. DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southern Texas and northeastern Mexico.The range of the species is north to southern Texas (Del Rio, FortClark, Encinal, and Corpus Christi) . East to the Gulf coast of Texas(Corpus Christi and Brownsville) ; Tamaulipas (Altamira) ; andVeracruz (Jalapa and Cordoba). South to central Veracruz (Cor-doba and Orizaba) ; and Mexico (Mexico City). West to Mexico(Mexico City) ; Hidalgo (Jacala) ; Queretaro (Jalpan) ; San LuisPotosi (Angostura) ; Coahuila (Sabinas) ; and Texas (Del Rio).The typical subspecies, the long-billed thrasher {T. I. longirostre)
^
is found only in Mexico from Queretaro and Veracruz southward,Sennett's thrasher {T. I. sennetti), the race occurring in the UnitedStates, is found from Texas to San Luis Potosi and Tamaulipas.Casual record.?A specimen was collected at Barr, Colo., in May1906.Egg dates.?^Texas: 135 records, April 2 to June 24; 82 records,May 6 to 23, indicating the height of the season.Mexico : 13 records, March 18 to July 7.TOXOSTOMA CINEREUM CINEREUM (Xantus)SAN LUCAS THRASHERHABITSJohn Xantus (1859) described and named this species, which hesays is "very similar to Mimus montanus [sage thrasher], with longerand more curved bill. The upper parts are grayish brown or cinere-ous with a faint trace of rufous on the rump. Beneath white witha tinge of brownish yellowish towards the vent ; the breast and sideswith sharply defined sagittate or subtriangular spots of brown,scarcely elongated on the sides, the shade of brown similar to, butdarker than that of the back. The lateral tail feathers are tippedwith white, the outer one sometimes edged with the same. Thereare two narrow dull whitish bands on the wings."This, the type race of the species, occupies about the southern halfof the peninsula of Baja California, ranging north to about latitude28?. Another race, Tnearnsi, is found farther north on the penin-sula, and there is another race in southern Mexico.
378 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWilliam Brewster (1902) says: "It is resident and rather generallydistributed in the Cape Kegion, where, however, it does not seemto occur at elevations much exceeding 3,000 feet. Mr. Frazar foundit common in the neighborhood of La Paz and San Jose del Rancho,somewhat less numerous at Triunfo, and 'very scarce' at San Josedel Cabo."Griffing Bancroft (1930) writes: "These thrashers are relativelycommon wherever there is any considerable growth of small cactuses.Their distribution is in direct proportion to the density of the re-quired growth. It is, therefore, peninsula-wide and unaffected byaltitude or climate except in so far as those factors determine theabundance of the cactus. That growth is most dense near the endsof the cross section. It comes to an abrupt termination, togetherwith the habitat of these thrashers, where the sand dune associationbegins."In some notes recently sent to me Bancroft says : "Beginning at thenorthern limit of the Vizcaino Desert the habitat of the San Lucas andMearns's thrashers skirts the foothills of Sierra San Pedro Martir,on the westerly side, and just below San Quintin, swings abruptly tothe east. South of the Sierra, it reaches both the Pacific and theGulf coasts, and includes the whole interior, wherever there are suitableassociations.
"The territory described is coincidental with the Lower SonoranZone in Lower California, except for the extension of the ColoradoDesert faunal area. The latter occupies the northeastern corner ofLower California, from the international boundary south to theeastern side of Sierra San Pedro Martir. It is important to noticethat in the entire region occupied by cinereum, there is also to be foundLophortyx califomica. Where that quail is replaced by Lophortyxgamheli, there are none of these thrashers.
"It was remarked that, within the area specified, these thrashers areto be found wherever associations are suitable. These might be de-fined as semiriparian?and that in a country wholly without streams.The birds do not find what they need in or along river beds that arescoured by flash storms. They do like what perhaps are extinctstream beds with a poor apology for soil and with broken lines ofscattered mesquite, palo verde, and ironwood; but always a certainamount of minor vegetation."On the whole, cinereum is probably more closely associated withcholla and garambuUo than with any other form of vegetation?andthis despite the fact that the bird will follow these cacti up caiionwalls, but not onto the open mesa above, and despite the fact that, inmany semiriparian associations, the thrasher is nearly as common asit is anywhere in regions totally devoid of any form of cactus."
SAN LUCAS THRASHER 379Nesting.?'M.Y. Bancroft (1930) says of the nesting habits of thisrace:It builds about half its nests in or under mistletoe, therefore most often inmesquite. It uses cholla frequently, the crotch of a cardon, or an arrow tree orother thorny growth. The same pair may utilize, in successive seasons, threeor four types of sites. If in a scrub tree it may be anywhere from the heart tothe outer branch tips. It will on the average be perhaps ten feet above theground.The nests themselves are not very dissimilar, though those of the VizcainoDesert average somewhat lai'ger and they are more substantial than the others.A good understructure of rather short and fine twigs holds a hemispherical cup.This is thicker and deeper than that of the jays and is built of thread-likerootlets. It is of the same material throughout, the only suggestion of a liningbeing an occasional feather, or bit of lizard skin, or perhaps a pinch of cotton.Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1874) state that, according to Xantus,
"their nests were flat structures, having only a very slight depressionin or near their centre. They were about 5 inches in diameter, andwere very little more than a mere platform."Since the above was written, Mr. Bancroft has sent me the followingnotes : "In choosing nesting sites in cholla the Mimidae, as a family,display little individuality. They select healthy plants, apparentlyto prevent their nests being destroyed by falling segments. Theyusually, though by no means always, build in the lower half of thebush and make a definite effort to get well inside. They are muchmore interested in protection from the top and sides than from below.I have noticed virtually no differences in the technique of cine7'eimi,7eco7itei, and curvirostre."The garambuUo is a globe-shaped echinocactus typically about 6feet in diameter. It is composed of innumerable arms 2 or 3 inchesthick and spaced about twice that far apart. The thrasher we arediscussing usually places its nest halfway from the center to theoutside of the bush, and about two-thirds the distance from the bottomto the top. There may be easily six or eight old nests in one plant.It is not at all unusual to find the nest of a wood rat and an occupiedthrasher nest in the same garambullo. The inference, of course, is thatthe rats do not disturb the birds.
"In an ironwood the nest is apt to be 5 or 6 feet above ground,according to the thickness of the foliage, and placed directly againstthe trunk. In mesquite it usually is placed in the ubiquitous mistletoeand may be easily 15 or 20 feet high.
"It is an old trick, in hunting for the eggs of any thrasher, to followup the lead given by old nests. Where these are found a search inthe vicinity will often reveal the new one. If I should discover an oldcinereum nest in, for instance, a cholla, I probably will locate otherold nests in the immediate vicinity, also in cholla. If so, it would bea waste of time to look through the garambullo or any other growths
380 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMin the neighborhood. The particular pair of birds in which I aminterested have a choHa complex which they stubbornly maintain.Similarly, if my old nests are in garambullo, it would be foolish towork in cholla, or, if they were on a hillside, it would be useless toscour the valley. But, until the first of the old nests is noticed, Ihave little reason to prefer one form of vegetation over another.
"Nearly all my thrasher sets have been taken either from cholla,garambullo, or ironwood. I have found the bird nesting, however,in flatleaf cactus, pitahaya, and mesquite, on the arm of a cardon, infrutilla, and in other unusual sites. Individually the birds are veryconsistent; racially quite the reverse."Eggs.?Mr. Bancroft (1930) writes:Nothing lias been published contrasting the breeding habits of the two formsof San Lucas Thrasher, though a comparison should be of interest. The MearnsSan Lucas Thrasher (Toxostoma cinereum mearnsi) reaches the height of itsbreeding season 6 weeks to 2 months earlier than does T. c. cinereum. Thatmeans March and April for one and May and June for the other. They layeither two or three eggs ; I have one record of four for each. The more northerlybird lays three much more often than two ; the converse is true of the otherthrasher. The eggs themselves are not distinguishable. They resemble thoseof the Bendire Thrasher (Toxostoma tendirei) so closely that identification ispossible only from averages of color and sizes.Baird, Brewer, and Eidgway (1874) say: "The ground color isgreenish-white, profusely marked with spots of mingled purple andbrown. In others the ground color is bluish-green. In some speci-mens the spots are of a yellowish-brown, and in some the markingsare much lighter."The only three eggs that I have examined are ovate, somewhatelongated, and have a very slight gloss. The bluish-white groundcolor is more or less evenly covered with spots and blotches of palebrowns, pale "cinnamon-buff" or very pale "clay color," and withshell spots of "pale ecru-drab." They are totally unlike the eggsof other thrashers, except Bendire's, which they closely resemble;this is not strange, as the two species are closely related. Other ob-servers have noticed this resemblance and their resemblances to eggsof the mockingbird.Mr. Bancroft (1930) gives the average measurements of 92 eggs as27.3 by 19.5 millimeters; among the measurements of 39 other eggsbefore me, those showing the four extremes measure 31.0 by 27.0,23.9 by 18.8, and 26.7 by 18.0 millimeters.Plumages.?Ridgway (1907) describes the juvenal plumage as muchlike that of the adult but "pileum, hindneck, and back light buffygrayish brown (between broccoli brown and wood brown), passinginto cinnamon on rump and upper tail-coverts; middle and greaterwing-coverts tipped with cinnamon-buff, the tertials margined ter-
SAN LUCAS THRASHER 381
minally with the same ; markings on underparts much smaller, morelinear."The markings on the underparts are also more numerous on youngbirds than on adults. I have no information on the molts, which areprobably similar to those of the other desert thrashers. Mr. Brewster(1902) says: "Autumn birds are much more ashy above and buffy be-neath than spring specimens. In some of the former, the wing covertsare tipped with rusty, and the flanks, abdomen, crissum, and under tailcoverts with light rusty ochraceous. As the season advances, thesecolors gradually fade, until by April the upper parts become dullashy brown, while the abdomen and crissum are only faintly tingedwith rusty. In June the plumage is excessively worn and faded, andthe underparts are essentially uniform soiled white."Field marks.?Birds of this species are somewhat like sage thrashersin general appearance and behavior, but the sage thrasher is not likelyto be seen in Baja California except in winter and is not very commonthen. The San Lucas thrasher is a much larger bird than the sagethrasher, has a much longer and more curved bill, and has somewhatless white on the tips of the lateral tail feathers.Enemies.?^Mr. Bancroft says in his notes: "The life problem ofcinereum consists far more in obtaining food than it does in escap-ing enemies. There is little evidence that the depredations of the lat-ter are a serious deterrent to an increase in the number of birds;if the contrary were true, I am sure that we who are familiar withLower California would have sensed it. Sharp-shinned and pigeonhawks definitely are not factors. Nor are nocturnal birds of prey, inmy studied opinion. I do not see how owls can catch thrashers inappreciable numbers. Certainly not without leaving traces whichwe could hardly have failed to detect. This same line of thought ap-plies to predatory animals. Furthermore, though there are quite afew varieties, individually their relative number is small and all areutterly dependent on other than avian prey for maintenance."The worst offender is the gopher snake, Pituophis vertebralis.Occasionally I have found one that has climbed into a garambullo, oreven a cardon, in apparent search for eggs or nestlings. However,if these reptiles often met with success, they would leave traces thatare noticeably absent, records plain enough for all to read. As a mat-ter of fact, snakes are not at all abundant on the southern deserts;three times only have I seen one engaged in one of these forays."DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Baja California; nonmigratory.The species ranges north in Baja California to a little north oflatitude 31? (San Antonio del Mar and San Telmo) . East to central
382 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBaja California (San Telmo, San Fernando, and San Jubier) south-ward to about latitude 28?30' N., thence eastward to the coast of theGulf of California (Santa Rosalia, San Jose Island, and La Paz).South to the end of the peninsula (Cape San Lucas). West to thePacific Ocean (Cape San Lucas, Todos Santos, San Juanico Bay,Santa Catarina Landing, and San Antonio del Mar).The above range is for the species as a whole, which has been dividedinto two subspecies. The San Lucas thrasher {T. c. dnereum) isfound across the peninsula from about latitude 28? 30' southward;the Mearns's thrasher {T. c. mearnsi) occupies the Pacific coast strip,between latitudes about 31? and 28? 30'.Egg dates.?Baja California: 115 records, March 20 to August 23;56 records, April 6 to 30, indicating the height of the season.TOXOSTOMA CINEREUM MEARNSI (Anthony)MEARNS'S THRASHERHABITSA. W. Anthony (1895c) named this northern race and described itas "differing from H. cinereus in much darker upper parts, the rumpVandyke brown in contrast, more rusty flanks and crissum, muchlarger and more intensely black spots on the lower parts and in theless curved bill."The range of this subspecies, so far as known, seems to be confinedto the Pacific slope of northern Baja California, from latitude 28? 30'to latitude 31?.Nesting.?In comparing the nesting (see above) and other habitsof the two Lower California forms of this species, Griffing Bancroft(1930) says:The nesting of the two birds presents the strongest antitheses. The Mearns,with but two exceptions noted, builds in cactus. There are many varieties ofthis plant within its range, and they are used indifferently, flat leaf, cholla oftwo or three species, and especially the pitahaya and garambulla. It is to benoted, however, that a given individual pair of these birds adheres uncompro-misingly to one species of cactus. If, in the breeding season, you find an oldthrasher nest and search the surrounding country you are apt to find anotherold nest in every satisfactory plant of the species which contained the first. Ifyou have suflBcient patience and luck you will also find an occupied nest in thesame kind of plant. The normal site is on the lower and outer branches, sayof a cholla, well protected from above and 3 feet off the ground. In pitahayasuch sites are impracticable but are approximated as closely as possible.Eggs.?^He says that the eggs, more often three than two, are indis-tinguishable from those of the San Lucas thrasher or Bendire'sthrasher. The measurements of his 47 eggs average 28.1 by 19.9 milli-meters. J. Stuart Kowley (1935) gives the measurements of thelargest and the smallest egg in his series as 32.0 by 21.0 and 25.0 by
BENDIRE'S THRASHER 38320.0 millimeters. The measurements of 40 e^rgs before me average27.7 by 19.7 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure32.0 by 21.0, 27.1 by 21.1, 24.3 by 19.1, and 27.6 by 18.6 millimeters.Behavior.?Comparing the behavior of the two races, Mr. Bancroft(1930) says: "In its conduct in the field the Mearns Thrasher is moreshy, hy far. It seldom allows a close approach and I have never knownone to betray its nest. The Cape bird depends more on concealmentand is not notably wary. It frequently hovers about its nest, and onmany occasions I have flushed sitting birds at a range of a few feet.These characteristic traits harmonize with the preferred associations."Mr. Anthony (1895c) also found the northern race remarkablyshy, making it almost impossible to secure specimens. He writes:"On June 13 I was stalking a herd of antelope on the San Carlosmesa, near the coast, and had prostrated myself under a large chollacactus to wait for the game, which was slowly feeding toward me ; andin this uncomfortable position I spent about half an hour, during whichnot less than half a dozen of these usually shy Thrashers took up sta-tions on adjoining cacti, within 15 yards, showing great curiosity andmaking frequent remarks, uncomplimentary, no doubt, on the newspecies of lizard they had found, but always ready to drop out ofsight at the first movement on my part,"I can find no further information on the behavior of either race ofthis species, and nothing at all on their food or voices.TOXOSTOMA BENDIREI (Cones)BENDIRE'S THRASHERPlates 71-73HABITSBendire's is one of several species of thrashers that breed in oursouthwestern deserts. The Southwest is rich in species and subspeciesof this genus, but they all occupy rather limited ranges, as comparedwith our wide-ranging and homogeneous brown thrasher. Bendire'sthrasher is one of the most limited in its range, breeding only in south-eastern California, Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and northernSonora. And, according to my experience, it is not very common any-where, except perhaps in the low, flat country around Tucson and thefoothills of the southern Catalinas. It has been reported as locallycommon in the Lower Sonoran valleys in other parts of Arizona andwestern New Mexico and in some places up to 4,000 or even 6,500 feetin the mountains. There are scattering records from northeasternand northwestern Arizona.Spring.?W. E. D. Scott (1888a) writes: "On the plains aboutTucson and to the southward, this species is resident, but even herethere seems to be a very considerable migration, as the birds are much
384 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMmore common in the spring and during the breeding season thanduring the late fall and winter months. * * *
"In the foothills of the Catalinas the birds were not resident butwere present for about 8 months of the year, and were quite com-mon during the breeding season, though they did not range above4,000 feet. Here they arrive early in March, the 7th of that monthbeing the earliest record made, and begin mating and nesting almostat once."Herbert Brown (1901) says: "During the winter months an occa-sional one can be found in their usual habitat, but, as a whole, they gosouth bodily on the first fall storm of wind and rain. The returnmigration is more gradual, but always of uncertain date. I haveknown the difference of a full month to exist in their homecoming intwo succeeding years. This was probably due to climatic conditionsfurther south." He gives February 9 as the earliest known date ofarrival, when "they were gathered in small flocks and were not mated."Nesting.?Our experience with the nesting of Bendire's thrasher inCochise and Pima Counties, Ariz., was limited to three nests, onefound April 26, 1922, with young, and two, found on May 23 andJune 11, with eggs. So I prefer to quote from some of the excellentaccounts that have been published. Herbert Brown (1901) gives thefullest account; he says: "The first week in March will frequentlyfind them nesting, and the middle of April preparations for a secondbrood are well under way, but, taken over a long series of years, thebeginning of April generally sees them busy with their first housemaking. I have never been able to fully determine the exact numberof families raised by one pair of birds during a season. Of two therecan be no question, but a third is in doubt, although I have known thenesting season to last three full months and a half. To be more exact,February 24 is the earliest and July 18 the latest I have in mind for1 year."He has measured at least 200 nests and gives these measurementsand other data on 17 of them; the highest of these, there recorded,was about 12 feet from the ground in a mesquite; of the others, intasajas and chollas, two were 5 feet, one only 22 inches, and the re-mainder between 3 and 4 feet above the ground ; the measurements ofthese 17 nests varied greatly ; the diameter of the nest proper was 6 to7 inches, but as much as 11 or 12 inches over-all, including the founda-tion twigs; the inside diameter varied 2^4 to 3^^ inches, the insidedepth 114 to 314) and the over-all depth 3 to 9 inches. He observedthat
?
the larger portion of the nests are in tasajas. This is a species of cactus forwhich, for the want of a better name, I am obliged to use that of the Mexicans.The word means "dry or jerked beef" which in color and shape the tasajasomewhat resembles. The spines, although innumberable, are short and the
BENDIRE'S THRASHER 385branches spreading and open. The cholla is the characteristic cactus of thedesert. It is a mass of barbed spines and is the favorite nesting place of H.palmeri, but not of H. tendirei. Taking 50 nests in succession 34 of them wereplaced in tasajas, 11 in chollas, 3 in tesota bushes, 1 in a mesquite tree and onein a willow tree. These results are from the Fort Lowell district. In othersections of country less characteristic of the cacti I have found them largelyinclined to tree nesting, but never at any great height from the ground. Thiswas Capt. Bendire's experience also. The highest I ever saw one placed wasin a willow about 20 feet up. I also saw one in a tasaja the bottom of whichwas not more than 6 inches from the ground. * * *The nest is small and daintily constructed by comparison with those of otherthrashers. It is less compactly built than that of H. palmeri, but the mannerof construction is common to all Arizona thrashers. There is an external nestof sticks, few or many, the nest proi)er of grass and lined with any soft materialconveniently obtainable.M. French Gilman (1909) has published a comprehensive paperon the thrashers of Arizona, in which he says of this species
:
A great range in choice of nesting sites was noticed. Of the thirty-nine nests,thirteen were in I/ycium bushes; three in mistletoe, in mesquite and catsclaw(Acacia greggli) ; three in palo verde, two in catsclaw, two in Sarcohatus, onein screw-bean, and one in a salt-bush. The average height was 5 feet, and theextremes 3 feet and 10 feet. Two nests, deserted as far as the thrashers wereconcerned, were found, each containing an egg of Gambel Partridge. * * *The nests are much finer in material and workbirdship than those of mostthrashers. They are smaller, more compactly built and very symmetrical intheir cupped shape. Finer twigs are used in the outside and they are fittedclosely together. The lining is variously composed of horse-hair, thread, twine,pieces of cloth, grass, weeds, rootlets, fine bark, wool and cotton from bed-quilts, etc., etc. Most of them contain more or less horsehair, and if near anIndian home, as is often the case, twine and material from the bed coversenters largely into the lining. One nest I noticed was built against a Verdin'snest, the wall of the latter in fact forming part of one side of the thrasher'snest. Both nests contained eggs, so the proprietors were on very neighborlyterms, even tho I could discover no doorway between the apartments.F, W. Braund has sent me the data on a nest he found near Tucsonon May 7, 1935, that was lined with creosote blooms, weed stems, andseed pods.Dr. Friedmann (1934) mentions only one case where Bendire'sthrasher has been a host to the dwarf cowbird.Eggs.?Mr. Brown (1901) has seen so many eggs of Bendire'sthrasher, that I cannot do better than to quote his full description ofthem as follows
:
With rare exceptions four eggs are the maximum number laid. I have exam-ined probably 500 nests, two only of which contained more. They had five eggseach. Four is not an unusual number, but three is a normal set. * * *The ground color in the majority of the 148 specimens varies from a pale graygreen to a greenish white, the former predominating. In a single set it is a clearpale green with a bluish tinge. Most of the eggs are irregularly spotted andblotched with well-defined markings of tawny ecru drab, fawn color andvinaceous buff. These markings are generally heaviest about the larger end of
386 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe egg; in some specimens tlie spots run longitudinally. In this type aboutthree-fourths of the eggs examined can be included. They resemble, in the styleof marking, the eggs of Mimus polyglottos, somewhat, although the eggs them-selves look quite different. In about 20 percent the ground color is somewhatclouded over and partially obscured by the markings, which are finer, less pro-nounced, giving the egg a uniform pearl gray and pale greenish gray appearancetill closely looked at. In an occasional specimen, the markings are simply finepinpoints, as in the smaller spotted eggs of Uarporhynchus rufus.In about 5 percent of the eggs, the ground color is grayish or pinkish whitewith scarcely a trace of green, and the egg is heavily and uniformly spottedwith longitudinal markings of pale salmon color and lavender, bearing a strikingresemblance to some eggs of Myiadestes townsendi, excepting in size. A singleegg has a distinct wreath about the larger end.The shape of these eggs varies a great deal, the most common form being anelongate ovate, varying from this to ovate, short ovate, and elliptical ovate.The measurements of 50 eggs in the United States National Museumaverage 25.6 by 19.1 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 29.7 by 19.6, 28.5 by 21.8, 23.4 by 18.8, and 25.4 by 17.8millimeters.Young.?No one seems to have determined the period of incubationfor this thrasher or the length of time that the young remain in thenest, though Bendire's probably does not differ materially from otherdesert thrashers in these matters. This species is so shy about its nestthat the care and feeding of the young are not easily observed, andnothing seems to have been recorded on this subject. As mentionedabove, two broods in a season seems to be the rule, with sometimes athird brood. Mr. Gilman (1915) noted that one pair of birds broughtoff a brood of young about the first of May, a second brood left the neston July 6, and on July 25 the female was incubating on a third set ofeggs.Mr. Scott (1888a) says: "The young birds, as soon as they are fullygrown, begin to congregate in companies, often being associated withone or two H. curvirostris fdlmeri and H. crissalis. I have seen fortyor fifty young Thrashers, mostly bendirei, together in such a flock inlate May and early June. At such times the birds seek a somewhathigher altitude, as high as five thousand feet, and effect thickets oflow oaks and juniper."Plumages.?Young Bendire's thrashers in juvenal plumage differfrom the breeding adults, which are then quite worn and faded, inhaving the upper parts, especially the rump, tinged with reddishbrown, the secondaries and tertials broadly edged and tipped withbuffy brown, the greater wing coverts broadly tipped with "cinnamon-buff," and the tail feathers (except the central pair) tipped withbuffy brown. In very young birds the underparts are more or lesstinged with "cinnamon-buff," most strongly on the flanks and crissum,which fades out to dull white in older birds ; there is much individualvariation in the amount and distribution of the grayish brown spots
BENDIRE'S THRASHER 387
or streaks on the under parts; in some these markings cover all thebreast and abdomen, while in others they are confined to the breastor only to the sides.The time at which the postjuvenal molt takes place varies withthe dates on which the two broods were hatched, but a partial molt, in-volving the contour plumage and the wing coverts, produces a first-winter plumage practically indistinguishable from that of the falladult.Adults have a complete postnuptial molt, beginning late in Julyand continuing through August. Adults in fresh fall plumage aredarker and grayer above and the spots on the chest are darker than inspring birds ; wear and fading produce paler spotting on the under-parts, the spots becoming faint in many cases before summer.Food.?No very comprehensive study of the food of Bendire'sthrasher seems to have been made and very little has appeared inprint about it. Like other thrashers, it evidently lives largely oninsects, such as beetles, caterpillars, and other larvae and pupae, whichit obtains mainly on or near the ground. William L. Engels (1940)says: "The Bendire thrasher, like the brown, spends much time onthe ground while foraging. Near Coolidge, Arizona, one waswatched from an automobile as it searched for food on the shoulderof the road, hammering vigorously at the ground with its relativelyshort, slightly curved bill. Another, seen in a cultivated field besidea patch of mesquite in which its nest was situated, was running alongbetween plant rows, occasionally jumping up into the air as if catchinginsects." Two that he shot, a pair coming to their nest, were "foundto be carrying small, green, wormlike larvae."Behavior.?Mr. Scott (1888a) regarded this thrasher as "at alltimes shy and wary and difficult to approach, even when nesting."But Mr. Gilman (1915) says : "The Bendire Thrasher is one bird thatfrom all indications takes kindly to settlement. These birds nest nearhouses, on which they perch to sing, come into the yards, and seemfearless if not molested. If their natural shelter is cleared up theytake kindly to artificial or planted growth and I believe will persistin the face of civilization. All this of course, provided that theyreceive some measure of protection and encouragement."Mr. Engels (1940) gives us some information on the general be-havior of this thrasher on the ground and in the air. One that hewatched on a creosote-bush flat was followed for several hundredyards
:
It walked or ran along, now slowly, now rapidly, in and out among thecreosote bushes, sometimes flying up into a low bush, then directly down againto the ground. Gait and carriage in these birds were essentially as in thebrown thrasher.Most Bendire thrashers seen, when not perched, were moving on the wing
388 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMin smooth easy flight. A. H. Miller (MS field notes, 1936) finds their flightremindful of that of mockingbirds. Flight is their usual method of locomotion
;
time and again they were seen flying from tree to tree at lieights of from 25to 50 feet, and, once, for a distance of more than a quarter-mile. This be-havior was especially noticeable when the bird was being pursued; before Icould maneuver myself into shotgun range, the bird would fly off to some moredistant perch. A bird suddenly approached, while on the ground, flew directlyup into the top of an adjacent mesquite about 30 feet high.Voice.?Like all the thrashers, Bendire's is no mean singer; it isalmost equal to the brown thrasher and suggestive of even the mock-ingbird. Mr. Gilman (1909) praises it in the following words:As for singing, the Bendire has them all beaten. The others are fine singersindeed, but their repertoire is limited. Not so with Bendire. No two seem tosing exactly alike and some of the songs are quite distinct from others. Notonly in variety of notes but in arrangement, are differences noticed. He is amore constant singer than the others and I frequently discovered a nest by thesong of the bird. The earliest date of singing was January 8, and I could hardlybelieve at first that Bendire was the performer. It was a low warbling songwith a decided sparrow "burr" to it. I approached as near as the bird wouldallow, but could not be sure that he was the singer as no throat movementcould be detected. When the bird flew, the song ceased and began again afterhe perched on a post. I repeated this maneuver several times before I wasconvinced that Bendire was warbling. Next evening I walked under a mesquitetree containing the singer and obtained a good close view of him and hisperformance.As the breeding season approached they sang more often, the song becominglouder and with less of the burr, in fact more like the typical thrasher song,if such there be. The songs were all very pleasing, but the variations were oftenpuzzling at first. Whenever I heard a new strain I said, "only another Bendiretuning up." They kept up the music till late in June and occasionally a song couldbe heard all summer and up to the last of September.Field marks.?Bendire's might easily be confused with Palmer'sthrasher in the field, but the former is browner above, the spots onthe chest are smaller and more distinct, and there is more white onthe tail tips. Mr. Gilman (1909) says that Bendire's has a smoother,evener flight than the somewhat jerky flight of Palmer's thrasher.Bendire's can be distinguished easily from the crissal and LeConte'sthrashers by its comparatively short, straight bill and by the grayish-brown spots on its breast; the latter two have much longer, curvedbills and unspotted breasts.Winter.?Authorities seem to differ as to the extent of the migra-tion and the winter range of Bendire's thrasher. Probably there isusually a short migration in fall from most of the range of the species.Some individuals evidently remain on or near their breeding groundsall winter, but they seem to be very scarce or entirely absent frommany of their summer haunts at that season. Their migration route isnot long, and they are absent for only a short period late in fall andearly in winter. Their winter range extends only as far south assouthern Sinaloa.
PALMER'S THRASHER 389DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico.Breeding range.?The Bendire's thrasher breeds north to southernCalifornia (Victorville, Cima, and Rock Spring) ; central and north-eastern Arizona (Beale Spring, Klethla Valley, Navajo County, andChin Lee). East to northeastern Arizona (Chin Lee and St.Michaels) ; extreme western New Mexico (Catron County, 25 mileseast of Springerville, Arizona, and Rodeo, Hidalgo County) ; andnorthwestern Chihuahua (Sierra Carrizalillo) . South to northwest-ern Chihuahua (Sierra Carrizalillo) ; and central Sonora (Tecoripaand Guaymas) . West to western Sonora (Guaymas, Artiz, and SantaAna) ; Arizona (Menager's Dam, Gunsight, Gilabend, and CongressJunction) ; and southern California (Palm Springs and Victorville).
'Winter range.?The winter range of the Bendire's thrasher cannotbe exactly defined on the basis of available records. It withdrawsfrom the northern part of its range, but is resident in southern Ari-zona, probably north about to the Gila River (the northernmost winterrecord is Phoenix) , It moves southward to southern Sonora (Camoa,Tesia, and Alamos) and to southern Sinaloa (Escuinapa).Casual records.?In a suburb of Los Angeles, Calif., an individualwas picked up on September 10, 1912. The only record for Nevada isof two individuals seen and one collected on May 16, 1939, near Delmar,Lincoln County. There are three records for Utah ; a nest and eggsfrom the shore of Utah Lake south of Lehi on April 26, 1932 ; a singlebird seen and collected 10 miles southeast of Escalente, GarfieldCounty, on May 9, 1937 ; and two specimens collected and other birdsseen on July 4, 1927, in Monument Valley where they may be ofregular occurrence. A specimen was collected in El Paso County,Colo., at Austins Bluffs, on May 8, 1882.Egg dates.?Arizona: 143 records, February 24 to August 1; 76records, March 16 to April 15, indicating the height of the season.TOXOSTOMA CURVIROSTRE PALMERI (Cones)PALMER'S THRASHERPliATES 74-77HABITSWhen I did my field work in southern Arizona, in 1922, Palmer'sthrasher was regarded as the breeding form of this species all acrossthe southern part of the State. At that time, J. Eugene Law (1928)had not called attention to the fact that the form breeding: east of theSanta Rita Mountains in southeastern Arizona and southern NewMexico is celsuni and not palmeri. But, as our field work coveredmuch of both Cochise and Pima Counties, we were able to make theacquaintance of both forms.758066?48 26
390 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMHarry S. Swartli (1929) confirms Mr. Law's diagnosis by say-ing: "Differences between the two lots, east and west of the SantaRitas, are, in most cases, fairly apparent, especially so in the freshlyassumed fall plumage. The eastern birds (eurvirostre) are rathermore slaty above, have fairly well marked white wing bars, havesharply defined white tips to the outer rectrices, and the breast spotsare large and fairly well defined. The western birds {pahneri) arebrowner above, lack the wing bars, have the tail spots obscurely indi-cated or else entirely wanting, and have the breast spots less distinct."The range of Palmer's thrasher covers a large part of southernand western Arizona, in the Lower Sonoran Zone, north to the cen-tral western part, east to the Santa Rita and Catalina Mountain re-gion, and south to Sonora and northern Chihuahua in Mexico, mostlybelow 3,000 feet elevation. It is one of the most abundant and char-acteristic birds of these arid plains, where the hard, sun-baked soilsupports only a scattered, open growth of small mesquites, grease-wood and creosote bushes, salt bushes and other thorny shrubs, withan occasional ironwood tree, a screwbean, or a paloverde, gorgeousin spring with its solid mass of yellow blossoms. But the most inter-esting features of these desert mesas are the varied forms of cactithat are scattered through this open growth of unattractive, lowshrubs that nowhere hide the bare ground. There are several speciesof choUas, or closely allied forms, of varied shapes and colors withblossoms of different hues, the huge barrel cactus that may somedayslake a traveler's thirst, the long, slender stems of the ocotillo withtheir flaming tips, and, here and there, the picturesque, towering can-delabra of the saguaros punctuate the landscape. Here the Palmer'sand Bendire's thrashers find a congenial home, make their nests in thespiny choUas, and vie with the other desert dwellers for the scantyliving that such a forbidding region affords.But these thrashers are not wholly partial to the open desert mesas
;
we frequently saw them about the ranches and often near houses,where they could find a solitary cholla in which to build their nest.Mr. Swarth (1920) says that "about Phoenix and Tempe it is, perhaps,the most abundant single species of bird, and it even ventures intothe towns where sheltering brush piles or thickets remain in vacantlots or along roadsides. Cultivated farm lands hold little attractionfor the thrasher, however, and it is rarely seen about such places."Courtship.?Palmer's thrashers are permanent residents in south-ern Arizona and are probably more or less pennanently mated; atleast the pairs seem to remain together during winter. Their court-ship seems to be a very simple affair just preceding nest-building.Earle F. Stafford (1912) has published an interesting account of apair that spent the winter about his ranch. On February 14, an ap-propriate date, he noticed signs of courtship : "One sidled along the
PALMER'S THRASHER 391fence, and the other followed at a respectful distance, singing a little,sotto voce. They were constantly in company after this, havinglittle pursuits and 'tiffs,' and the male, after two weeks of silence,sang oftener and with greater force than before." On the IGtli theystarted gathering nesting material, but they went about it in an "easyand desultory fashion." Wlien he left the ranch on March 9, no eggshad been laid, though the female had been seen on the nest repeatedly.Nesting.?All the nests we found, with one exception, were in choUas,3 to 5 feet above ground ; one was in that dense woolly cholla Ojnmtiabigelovii, the most thickly branched and most densely covered withvicious, barbed spines of all the chollas ; how the birds can pick theirway into it and out again is a mystery. In one nest, we were sur-prised to find three eggs of Gambel's quail. The only nest that wasnot in a cholla was placed 5 feet from the ground between the threebranches of a soapweed yucca. The nests were all made of coarse andfine thorny twigs, rather loosely laid, and were lined with fine grassesand in some cases with a little horsehair. Sometimes there were oneor more old nests in the same cholla with the new one; M. FrenchGilman (1909) shows a photograph of a cholla only 5 feet high thathad been a favorite nesting site, for it contained five old cactus wrens'nests and four old nests and one new nest of Palmer's thrasher. W. L.Dawson (1923) states that his son counted as many as 14 old nests,or their remnants, in one bush.We were not the only ones to find eggs of Gambel's quail in theold nests of Palmer's thrasher ; Mr. Gilman ( 1909 ) reports a nest thatheld 13 eggs of this quail; and F. C. Willard (1923) found a quailsitting on a set of 17 eggs, and shows a photograph of the nest and eggs.In this same paper Mr. Willard states that he saw a Palmer'sthrasher fly from a hole 15 feet up in a large sycamore, where he founda nest full of young thrashers.All observers seem to agree that the favorite nesting sites of Palm-er's thrasher are in chollas. Mr. Gilman (1909) says
:
Of 27 nests found, 11 were in the cholla ; 7 in the jujube, about as spiny asany cactus ; 4 were in mistletoe of niesquite and Cottonwood ; 2 in Lycium, 2 inmesquite, and 1 in a clematis vine trailing over a shrub. The average distancefrom the ground was QV2 feet, and the extremes were 2l^ feet and 10 feet. * * *The nest is a bulky affair but well built. The nest proper is 3 or 4 inches deep,inside measurement, and above this is a superstructure or rim from 2 to 3inches high. Several nests seen measured over 6 inches deep. Eather coarsetwigs are used in the construction and the lining is mostly of rootlets, thoughsome fine bark, hair or feathers may also be seen in some of the nests. Thebird is not too proud to use a foundation already laid, as three nests were foundbuilt right on top of old Cactus Wrens' nests.Herbert Brown (1892) refers to the thorny protection of the thrash-er's nest, probably in Opuntia higelovii, that exceedingly bristlingcholla, as
?
392 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMten million of cambric needles, set on hundreds of loosely jointed spindles, wovenso closelj' together as to apparently defy the penetration of a body however small,but the thrashers go in and out and up and through them with the ease of waterrunning through a sieve. In some convenient fork, on a limb against the boleof the bush, or in a cavity formed by the pendent stems of the plant, the nestis most commonly built. All the spines in the vicinity of the nest are pulled offfor the better protection of the young. This does not, however, always savethem as I have found them once in a while, tangled and dead in the terribleburs. * * *One nest was built on the ruins of three others and probably represented asmany successive broods, and gave the interior of the cholla the appearance ofhaving been solidly filled in with dead sticks. Exterior diameter of the nest20 inches, depth 36 inches, cavity across the top 4^^ inches, bottom 3 inches, depth6 inches, but lined only about 4 inches up with baling rope, hog bristles andgrass. * * * In the spring of 1889 I noted several nests made almost en-tirely of flowering weeds. This came from the nature of the vegetation in theimmediate vicinity of the cholla belt in which the nests were placed.Eggs.?Most Palmer's thrashers' nests contain three eggs, the usualcomplement, but four are not rare, two are frequent, and sometmiesa single ^gg is incubated and hatched. Fourteen of 27 nests examinedby Mr. Oilman (1909) contained three eggs each, two had four eggs,and the rest held two or one. There are 21 sets of eggs of this thrasherin the J. P. Norris collection, 15 of three, 5 of four, and 1 of two.The eggs vary in shape from ovate to short-ovate or elliptical-ovate,and they are not glossy. There is very little variation in color ormarkings; the ground color varies from pale bluish green, "dullopaline green," to pale greenish blue, "etain blue," or even to palershades of these colors. The markings usually consist of minute specksor fine pinpoints of pale brown, "cinnamon-rufous," evenly distributedover the entire egg, but rarely more thickly at the larger end. Stillmore rarely there are somewhat larger spots of darker brown, such as
"burnt umber." There is considerable variation in size; the measure-ments of 40 eggs, in the United States National Museum, average 29.3by 20.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 32.5by 20.0, 31.0 by 25.5, 25.9 by 19.8, and 26.4 by 18.3 millimeters, a varia-tion of about seven millimeters, or nearly 25 percent, in both lengthand breadth.Yov/ag.?The period of incubation is said to be about 13 days, andthe young remain in the nest 14 to 18 days. The male shares withhis mate the duties of incubation and the care of the young ; they area devoted pair and equally devoted as parents. Almost always twobroods, and sometimes three, are raised in a season. If the eggs aretaken from a nest, a second set will be laid within about two weeks;and within two or three weeks after the first brood leaves the nest,either the same nest, or another nearby, will be used to start thesecond brood. Although the nesting season is a long one, it seems
PALMER'S THRASHER 393
unlikely that a third nesting would be attempted, unless one of theearlier attempts had been broken up.A. L. Rand (1941) has published a most interesting and very ex-tensive paper based on his studies, near Tucson, Ariz., of a largenumber of young thrashers of this species, both in the wild and incaptivity, from the time of hatching until about 90 or 96 days old.The reader is referred to this paper for details, as only a few ofthe many interesting facts and reactions can be mentioned in thelimited space available here. He says that "in common with mostpasserine birds the young thrasher hatches in a blind, nearly nakedcondition; has a tendency to keep right side up and open its mouthfor food in response to a wide variety of stimuli ; it is utterly depend-ent on the adult. In the course of 5 or 6 weeks its physical equipmentand its behavior develop so that it can survive independently, findingits own food and escaping its enemies."He gives a detailed account, day by day, of the physical growthand the development of behavior of the young bird during the 18days that it is in the nest. For the first 5 days the young are blindand helpless. On the sixth day, the eyes can be widely opened andthe contour feathers are just breaking the skin; the rectrices arebeginning to break out of their sheaths. On the fourteenth daythe young bird is well feathered, and may leave the nest on or beforethe eighteenth day. "Two young of one nest, usually one a dayolder than the other, often leave the nest a day apart, the stimuluscausing one young to leave not causing the other to do so. Theirphysical equipment is such that they can hop and run well, but theirwings only help them to flutter down at a steep angle. * * * Whenyoung thrashers in captivity were beginning to feed themselves toa considerable extent (after about 30 days), they still begged occa-sionally. * * * By the 40th day they became completely inde-pendent and somewhat shy of persons."He conducted a number of interesting experiments to determine thereaction of young thrashers to various stimuli, including mnnimals,predatory birds, and reptiles introduced in the cages. The thrashersusually showed mild interest and sometimes fled, but they apparentlyhad not learned to recognize dangerous enemies. This section of hispaper is well worth reading.Plmnages.?The Brewster collection, in the Museum of ComparativeZoology in Cambridge, contains a large series of specimens of thisthrasher, including several in juvenal plumage. I cannot improveon Mr. Brewster's (1882a) own words in describing some of them.One young bird, "although well feathered, has the wings and tail un-developed, and was taken from the nest. Its entire upper plumageis rusty brown with a chestnut tinge which deepens on the rump
394 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMand outer webs of the secondaries to decided chestnut brown. Thegeneral coloring of the under parts is pale fulvous with a strong tingeof rusty chestnut across the breast, along the sides, and over the analregion and crissum. The breast is obsoletely spotted, but the plumageelsewhere, both above and below, is entirely immaculate."Several other young birds, somewhat older, show varying degreesof intensity of the rusty tinge and its distribution, and considerablevariation in the amount and distribution of the spotting on the breast.He continues
:
Several of these young birds are so nearly similar to specimens of H. hendireiin corresponding stages that they can be separated only with great difficulty. Thestouter bill and entirely black lower mandible of palmeri may, however, alwaysbe depended upon as distinguishing characters ; and, moreover, the pectoralspotting of hendirei is usually (but not invariably) finer and sharper, and therusty tinge above paler and less extended.The adults present a good deal of variation, most of which is apparentlyseasonable. Winter specimens have the lower abdomen, with the anal region andcrissum, rich rusty-fulvous, while the markings beneath are similar in characterto those of true curvirostris and the spots equally distinct, numerous and widelydistributed. With the advance of the season, and the consequent wear and tearof the plumage, the spots gradually fade or disappear. Indeed some of the Junespecimens are absolutely immaculate beneath, although most of them, likeMr. Ridgway's types have a few faint markings on the abdomen. In thiscondition the general coloring is also paler and grayer, and the fulvous of thecrissum and neighboring parts often entirely wanting.The postnuptial molt of adults, and apparently the postjuvenalmolt of young birds, begins late in July and continues through August
;
old birds look very much worn, bedraggled, and faded at this season.Food.?The food of Palmer's is very similar to that of the otherthrashers, including numerous insects and their larvae as well asvarious fruits and berries. Its feeding methods remind one of oureastern brown thrasher. It is fond of water and comes freely tobird baths and other places where it can find water about houses, aswell as resorting to open water holes. Florence Merriam Bailey(1923) writes:One was seen drinking from a dripping faucet and another seen perched ontop of a viznaga reaching down with its long curved bill digging out the shiningblack seeds and the moist pulp which the House Finches had also found a readysource of both food and moisture. A Thrasher accidentally caught in a trap,January 28, had an empty crop but a gizzard full of seeds of cactus (Opuntiasp. ?), and the shrubbery hackberry (Celtis pallida), a few oat shells, onegrain, a few insect remains, apparently ants, and some gravel. One of thebirds was seen, February 3, walking in the mesquite pasture, flipping up cow-chips as he went, evidently looking for insects or other toothsome morsels below
?
a scorpion had been found under one of them.Mr. Stafford (1912) says: "I have seen my birds spend much timein the yard half squatting, with braced feet, digging holes of consider-able depth (some as deep as 21/2 inches) with quick, powerful blows of
PALMER'S THRASHER 395their sickle-like beaks ; or casting aside the mould and parched soil withnervous sidewise thrusts, in search of grubs. On those parts of thedesert, too, affected by the birds the ground usually shows plentifulsigns of their probing."Mr. Brown (1892) says that "they press their tails firmly againstthe ground, after the manner of the woodpecker ; if the earth be dryand sandy, a perfect fusillade of dirt is kept up. The force of the blowis downward and toward the body, but occasionally to clean the sandout they strike sideward blows, and dirt flies for a foot in all directions."Behavior.?One cannot watch a Palmer's thrasher long without be-ing impressed with its decided resemblance to the brown thrasher inall its movements. It runs rapidly or hops lightly over the ground,or skims swiftly through the air from one low bush to another, seldomrising high in the air, and, if pursued, flies away or dashes to seclusionin the thickest shubbery it can find. Its method of foraging on theground is much like that of our eastern bird, as it tosses the leaves andlitter aside with its bill while hunting for food under trees and bushes.Mr. Engels (1940) writes:The gait of the Palmer thrasher is not smooth, but rather jerky; the birdgives the appearance of being set back on its haunches and of being stifE legged.The jerkiness of the gait is most in evidence when the bird is moving directlytoward or directly away from the observer ; the stiff-leggedness and the peculiarset of the body on the legs are best observed in profile. I do not mean to intimatethat the Palmer thrasher is not at ease on the ground, but only that in itswalking and running its action is not so smooth as that of other thrashers. * * *The Palmer thrasher is entirely like the brown and the Bendire in frequency offlight. In 16 days on the Arizona deserts in 1936, I saw at least 100 Palmerthrashers and followed many of them. Their reaction to pursuit was invariablythe same ; they moved away by flying, at a good height and often for rather longdistances. On a cut-over mesquite flat one bird was followed for more than ahalf-mile, and in the course of its flight it entered and left four or five mesquitesin succession without once descending to the ground. Brooding birds were re-peatedly flushed from their nests in the choUa cactus ; they always left on thewing and continued in flight to some distant perch.Some observers have referred to this thrasher as shy, and it may beso in its wilderness haunts, though we did not notice that it was anymore shy than the average wild bird ; and in the defense of its nest andyoung it is sometimes quite bold and fearless. About the ranches,where it is not molested, it even becomes rather tame. Mr. Oilman(1909) says:The Palmer and Bendire seem naturally much tamer than the others and comeabout homes quite frequently. All summer I placed pieces of watermelon in theshade of a school building?vacation time and no children about?and both thesethrashers came freely and ate with a family of scolding Cactus Wrens. But nevera Crissal appeared. The Palmer and Crissal dug in the garden and also ate wheatplanted nearby, and frequented the barn and well. They would come and drinkfrom an iron kettle placed on the ground for the chickens. At the Casa Granderuins the custodian had a large can placed so water from it dripped onto a milk
396 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
and butter cooler. This was against a window under the porch roof and a pairof Palmers would come and catch the drops of water as they fell. At a posttrader's store near Blackwater the Palmer would come into a porch and drinkfrom the drip of an olla or water cooler. Both Palmer and Bendire frequentlysing from the tops of Indian homes and sometimes from the school house. * * *This thrasher is a close sitter and when disturbed leaves the nest, but soon returnsshowing much concern. Both parents usually show up, approaching as near as6 feet and uttering the usual two-syllabled call, tho sometimes using the gutturalscolding note.Commenting on the fearlessness of these thrashers about his ranchin January, Mr. Stafford (1912) wrote in his notes: "Last night aswe sat motionless on the porch one of the Thrashers approached bystages to within 5 feet of us, caught a moth beneath the umbrella trees,flew up into one of the trees just before me, and then to the tap andbent over again and again for the drops of water that collected justwithin the mouth of the faucet. All of these acts he performed utterlyunconscious of us as living and observing creatures."He gives an interesting account of their nightly roosting habits inthe cholla containing their nest. On January 27, 1912, he wrote inhis notes
:
At about sunset, and while it was yet quite fully liglit, I took a small chairand seated myself almost within arm's reach and in full view of the chollacactus back of the sheds. For 20 minutes nothing appeared save a troop ofDesert and Brewer's Sparrows flying by, cheeping, to their roost in the lowmesquites. As yet there was no sign of the Thrashers. Suddenly, as the gloomwas faintly beginning to gather, one of the birds, without previous warning,arrived from the east and lighted on a fence post near me. I sat motionless, buthe evidently i-egarded this unwonted object near his home with suspicion. I feltthat he was examining me. Then he uttered, fairly in my ear, a volley of hiswhip-like whistles, which, after a moment, was loudly answered upon a suddenfrom the second bird, which seemed to come from the south. The two, thus joinedfor the night, flew about in the choUas, though not yet to them, singing andpurring softly to each other. One sat just beyond a bush in front of me, on theground, for 10 or more minutes. It was still so light that I contented myself withglances through nearly closed lids. * * *At length I heard them enter the chollas close at hand, uttering low notes ; andthen silence. I looked and saw one perched crouched, I think on a certain de-spined branch above the nest. The other I could not see. For a half hour thebird sat, facing the sunset, and motionless, and I could see its long curved beakand slim body outlined against the sky. As it grew darker I opened my eyes morefreely, and I imagined it regarding me the while. At length it moved, and turnedabout?I thought it had detected me and was on the point of flight?but instead itslid gently down into the big nest and disappeared in its ample cup.On other occasions he noted that "after sunset and before sunriseevery day a few sharp whistles from the direction of the chollas an-nounced the roost-going and the waking of the thrashers with precisepunctuality." And he concludes by saying : "As far as I can conclude,then, two Palmer's thrashers, having mated for life, select a suitablecholla and build a nest that shall serve indefinitely with such yearly
PALMER'S THRASHER 397
repair as it requires, for the rearing of young in the breeding season,and for sleeping quarters the rest of the year." It will be noted thathis roosting observations were made in January, that no signs of court-ship were seen until February 14, and that nest-repairing did notbegin until 2 days later.Additional evidence on this method of roosting is furnished byJosiah H. Clark (1898), who says: "In one instance I saw a series offive half completed nests built around the central stalk of a chollacactus and resting on the branches that grew out from the main stalk
;
they were all connected, and made a platform 2 feet in diameter, andonly about a foot and a half from the ground. It was built during thewinter and used only for a roosting place. The nest that was used asa breeding place was built 5 feet away in the top of a small cholla."Voice.?As a singer Palmer's thrasher is somewhat inferior toBendire's and decidedly inferior to the mockingbird and even thebrown thrasher. Mr. Stafford ( 1912) writes : "The song of this speciessuggests that of the eastern Thrasher, but lacks its variety and separa-tion into distinct phrases, and is more in the nature of a loud, inter-rupted carol, clear, and melodious. Its two or three note call is sharpand startling, like the 'sing' of a whip stroke echoing upon itself.These, together with low trills and Wren-like chatters, uttered at timeswhen the birds are together, were the only notes I heard ; and the songis not to be confused with the feverish, rollicking music of the Ben-dire's {Toxostoma hendirei)?a bird nearly as common in this regionas palmeriyMr. Brown (1892) says : "Palmer's thrasher may never be classed asa musical prodigy, but nevertheless among Arizona birds he is rivalledonly by that king of American songsters, Mimus polyglottos. Morn-ing, noon and evening, perched on the topmost branch of a cholla, heis always in tune, and while his notes may perhaps be less varied thanhis more favored kinsman, it is none the less bold and commanding,and but for the ubiquity of his rival in song would be in demand as acage bird."Mrs. Bailey (1923) writes: "The three-syllabled liquid tee-dle-lahwas heard commonly all winter and the loud strident call occasionally,and on the morning of January 12, while the ground was still coveredwith white frost, a soft low song was heard coming from one of thebirds sitting fluffed up in the cold. The song was heard again onJanuary 19 and February 3, and on March 4, one was heard singingloudly from the peak of a tent at Continental."Field marks.?Palmer's thrasher might easily be confused withBendire's ; both have the typical thrasher build, long and slender, witha particularly long tail, and a rather long bill ; both are dull, earthybrown on the upper surface, matching the desert floor, and faintlyspotted on the breast; there are no conspicuous, distinguishing marks
398 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMon either. Bendire's is a little smaller than Palmer's, is a little moredefinitely spotted on the breast, and has a shorter and less curved bill.The songs of the two are somewhat different ; and the flight of Ben-dire's is smoother, less jerky, than that of Palmer's.Winter.?This thrasher is a permanent resident in Arizona andapparently remains paired during winter. Mr. Stafford (1912) makesthe statement that "after the young are launched, the old pair, whileremaining inseparable, lapse into a condition of conjugal camaraderie,and that the male quietly courts his mate anew each spring in anticipa-tion of nesting."Mr. Brown (1892) says: "During the winter months they leave themesas for the more sheltered bottoms where they frequent the brushfences, pomegranate and willow hedge rows bordering the ploughedfields, and then, literally, they are in mud to their eyes."TOXOSTOMA CURVIROSTRE CELSUM MoorePLATEAU THRASHERHABITSThe distribution of this race of the species is now understood toextend from southeastern Arizona, east of the Santa Rita Mountains,and southern New Mexico, through western Texas and into Mexicothrough Chihuahua and Durango, east of the Sierra Madres. Thisis the form that we found breeding abundantly in Cochise County,Ariz., which we supposed at that time to be palmeri. The hauntsand the habits of the two were similar as far as we could see. Thecharacters in which these two forms differ are explained under theforegoing subspecies, as noted by H. S. Swarth (1929). In NewMexico, according to Mrs. Bailey (1928), it is a common breeder onthe cactus mesas and up to 6,000 and sometimes 7,000 feet on someof the mountains. Josiah H. Clark (1904) found this thrasher breed-ing commonly in the State of San Luis Potosi, Mexico, where the eleva-tion is about 8,000 feet and Palmer's thrasher in Sonora at an elevationof 1,200 feet, where chollas, common to both localities, served as themost common nesting sites.Nesting.?^With the exception of one nest, all the nests of thisthrasher that we found in Cochise County, Ariz., were in chollas andnot different in location and construction from those of Palmer'sthrasher found farther west. The one exception was a nest withyoung found in Rucker Canyon, in the Chiricahua Mountains, onApril 25, 1922; it was placed in a large soapweed yucca that stoodclose to the house at Moore's ranch ; the old bird was unusually tame.Mr. Clark (1904), who has examined over 100 nests of the tworaces of this species in Mexico, writes
:
PLATEAU THRASHER 399The nests of both birds are the same, made of thorny twigs ; in fact, nothinggrows there without thorns on it, so they can get nothing else. These sticksare 6 to 10 inches long, and formi the outside of the nest, which is lined withwire grasses ; sometimes horse hair is used in place of the grass, or with it.The nests are externally about 10 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep; in-ternally about 3% inches, both in diameter and depth. * * *The new nest of both birds is generally near the old one, usually in the samecactus, and sometimes the old nest made over.Sometimes the nest is completed 2 or 3 weeks before the eggs are laid.Then again, if the nest and eggs are taken the birds will have another nestand eggs in from 12 to 15 days, and the new nest is usually about 50 feet fromthe one taken, but if the first nest is not disturbed the nc'w nest will usuallybe about 5 feet from the old one.Of 58 nests of this thrasher, "40 were in cholla cactus, 16 in nopalocactus, and 2 in pahna trees."Eggs.?Three eggs seems to be the usual number ; of 10 sets, of whichhe gives the measurements, 8 were sets of three, 1 of two, and 1 of four.The eggs are apparently indistinguishable from those of Palmer'sthrasher, showing similar variations in colors and markings. Themeasurements of 50 eggs in the United States National Museum aver-age 27.3 by 19.8 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes meas-ure 30.8 by 20.8, 28.2 by 20.8, 23.4 by 18.8, and 24.4 by 18.0 millimeters.Plumages.?^Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) report that the natal downon a young nestling, taken from a nest, "was Chaetura Drab above andwhitish on the chin and ventral tracts, the lining of the mouth wasYellow Ocher." The sequence of molts and plumages is doubtlesssimilar to those of the species elsewhere, though the postnuptial moltof adults seems to come somewhat later, mainly in September and earlyin October.Nothing that is peculiar to it seems to have been published on thefood of this subspecies, and apparently it does not differ materially inany of its habits from other races of the species.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southwestern United States and Mexico.The species ranges north to central Arizona (Hackberry, Big SandyCreek, Fort Verde, Salt Kiver Wildlife Eefuge, and Clifton) ; south-ern New Mexico (Pleasanton, Elmendorf, Capitan Mountains, andCarlsbad) ; and southern Texas (Comstock, Uvalde, San Antonio, andRunge). East to southern Texas (Runge, Corpus Christi, andBrownsville) ; Tamaulipas (Matamoros, Xicotencatl, and Tampico) ;Veracruz (Orizaba); Puebla (Techuacan) ; and Oaxaca (Oaxaca).South to Oaxaca. West to Oaxaca; Guerrero (Chilpancingo) ;Michoacan (Tancitaro) ; Jalisco (Tuxpan) ; Nayarit (Tepic) ; Sinaloa(Escuinapa and Altata) ; Sonora (Obregon, Guaymas, Tiburon Island,
400 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMAltar, and Sonoyta) ; extreme southeastern California (Bard) ; andArizona (Castle Dome Mountains, Harqua Hala Mountains, and Hack-berry) . An isolated colony has become established in the Black Mesanear Kenton, Cimarron County, Okla.The range as outlined is for the entire species, three subspecies ofwhich occur within the United States. Palmer's thrasher {T. c.palmeri) is found in southern Arizona and Sonora; the plateauthrasher {T. e. celsum) occurs from extreme southeastern Arizona,southern New Mexico, and western Texas, south to northeastern Jaliscoand northwestern Guanajuato; the Brownsville thrasher {T. c.oherholsen) occurs in extreme southern Texas and northeasternMexico ; Coahuila to Tamaulipas.The species occurs in winter throughout its range but some indi-viduals apparently withdraw from the northern sections.Casual records.?A specimen was collected at Spur, Tex., on Novem-ber 12, 1931 ; from April 19 to May 4, 1936, from 1 to 5 were seen atNorth Platte, Nebr., and a specimen collected on May 2 ; one was seendaily from June 5 to 11, 1932, near Pensacola, Fla., and it was collectedon the latter date.Egg dates.?Arizona : 7 records, April 19 to May 24.Texas: 110 records, March 12 to August 1; 60 records, April 24 toMay 23, indicating the height of the season.Mexico: 38 records, March 1 to July 24; 20 records, April 8 toMay 28. TOXOSTOMA CURVIROSTRE OBERHOLSERI LawBROWNSVILLE THRASHERHABITSIn naming and describing this subspecies, J. Eugene Law (1928)says: "The white terminal spots of the lateral rectrices combinedwith the near-equal length of wing and tail differentiate oberholserifrom palnieri^ occidentalis and maculata of the Pacific watershed.From curvirostris, its nearest neighbor, of the continental highlands,oberholseri only differs in shorter length of wing and tail. * * *The material at hand does not carry this small race [the smallest ofthe species] out of the lowlands of southern Texas and of northeast-ern Mexico (Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon and Coahuila). More than75 percent of the stations recorded on the labels of the series exam-ined are under 500 feet altitude ; none apparently is over 2,000 feet."We found this thrasher rather common in Cameron and HidalgoCounties in southern Texas, especially in the more open growth ofchaparral where there was a scattered growth of prickly pear cac-tus. George B. Sennett (1879) says: "This species, like the Long-billed, is usually more fond of dense cover than the Mockingbird, andwhile not often found, in the heaviest timber, yet will be found in thethickets common on the edges of such tracts. In open woodland,where clumps of tall thorny bushes and cacti surround the scattered
BROWNSVILLE THRASHER 401trees, it is always found, and usually in company with the Long-billed Thrush."Dr. Herbert Friedmann (1925) says that, near Brownsville, thisbird is called "Field Thrasher," as it is found in open fields.Nesting.?Mr. Sennett (1879) says of the nesting haunts of thisthrasher
:
In nesting, the habits of this species vary to suit the locality. In districtswhere chaparral covers the country, there is no respectable growth of timber,but now and then openings, principally occupied by prickly-pear cactuses andstunted mesquite trees, and here their nests will be found in cactuses morefrequently perhaps than in trees. But at Lomita I found five nests in treesto one in cacti. * * * At Lomita Ranch, close by a large and much fre-quented gateway, stands a young ebony-tree, from which, in plain sight, andsome 12 feet from the ground, I took a nest and four eggs in April * . * * andon May 20 I took a nest and three fresh eggs, at a height of 14 feet, in a largeebony, close by a pathway on the edge of a cornfield. These were the highestnests found, and in both instances the birds were as tame as Robins. Nests areseldom found lower than 4 feet from the ground.Elsewhere, referring to the same region near Brownsville, he (1878)writes
:
The first nest secured was at Hidalgo, April 17. Its location was beneaththe roof in the broken side of a thatched outhouse in the very heart of the vil-lage. A more exposed place for human view could not be found, nor was therein the village a yard more frequented by children; yet I could not imagine asafer retreat from its more natural enemies. * * * The average size of nestwas about that of an ordinary 4-quart measure, although, from its irregularshape, it would not set into one. Its depth outside was fully 6 inches, with aninside depth of 2 so that when the bird was on, though only 6 feet from theground, nothing but its head and tail could be seen. The nest was composed oftwigs from the size of a leadpencil down, and lined with dry grasses. * * *On May 10th, while on horseback, I came upon a prickly-pear cactus, wonderfulto me for its size and tree-like shape. Its trunk was the size of a man's body,and some of its branches were above my head as I sat on my horse. Its generalform was that of a wine-glass. While peering about and poking the stalks withmy gun, I discovered in the very heart of the great cactus a nest and four eggsof this Thrush. It was about 5 feet from the ground, perfectly exposed above,yet nothing could be more secure from all sides.Dr. J. C. Merrill (1878), writing about the same region, says:"The nests are usually placed among the fleshy joints of the pricklypear, or in some of the many thorny and almost impenetrable bushesfound in Southern Texas; they are often seen in the dense pricklyhedges that surround most Mexican jacals. They are, as a rule, readilydistinguishable from those of the Texas Thrasher and Mocking-birdby the almost invariable lining of yellow straws, giving a peculiarappearance to the nest. They are also more compactly built, are wellcupped, and often have the edges well guarded by thorny twigs."George B. Benners (1887) found a nest in an old woodpecker's holein a live oak tree on the bank of the Kio Grande near Laredo, Tex.
;
402 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe nest was "composed of dry grass, lined with feathers," and con-tained four eggs.Eggs.?Four eggs seems to be the usual set for the Brownsvillethrasher, though some of the sets consist of only three ; this, if true,is quite at variance with the custom of the species elsewhere. Theeggs are evidently indistinguishable from those of Palmer's thrasher,and show the same variations in size, shape, and markings. The meas-urements of 40 eggs average 27.1 by 19.7 millimeters; the eggs showingthe four extremes measure 32.3 by 20.5, 26.5 by 22.5, 22.5 by 19.0, and25.0 by 17.5 millimeters. Note that the greatest breadth and the leastlength are the same, a most unusual variation! The next shortestQ.^'g measures 24.9 and the next broadest 21.6.There is little more to be said about the habits of the Brownsvillethrasher, which seem to be quite similar to those of the species else-where. Mr. Sennett (1879) says:It is resident where found, commences to breed in March on the Rio Grande,and rears several broods in a season. The first is hatched in April, and gener-ally numbers four. By the middle or latter part of May, clutches for the secondbrood are full, and consist nearly always of three eggs. I have taken, however,a few sets of four from the second laying. * * * By the 1st of April, theplumage becomes faded and worn ; and, by the latter part of May, moulting be-gins. About this time, also, the small black fruit or berry of the como-tree,upon which the bird feeds, ripens, and it becomes almost impossible to shoot andprepare a specimen without the plumage becoming stained with the purple juiceswhich issue from the mouth and vent. * * * Were the country thickly set-tled, this bird might become as domestic as the Mockingbird or Robin.Elsewhere (1878) he says: "I do not remember hearing its song,but I am told by the residents of the country that it sings very sweetlyin secluded places, but never in confinement." Dr. Merrill (1878),on the other hand, says : "I cannot confirm the praises of the song ofthis bird given by Couch and Heerman : it seems to me to be one ofthe most silent of the song Thrushes. Its alarm note is a sharp wliit-whityR. D. Camp told Dr. Friedmann (1929) that he had found this spe-cies, near Brownsville, to be imposed upon by the dwarf cowbird.This is, I believe, the only case recorded for any of the races of thisspecies. TOXOSTOMA REDIVIVUM REDIVIVUM (Gambel)CALIFORNIA THRASHERPlates 78-80conteibuted by robeet s. woodsHABITSThe California thrasher is appropriately named, as it is one of anumber of birds of various families that, while common and widelydistributed in California, are almost exclusively confined to that
CALIFORNIA THRASHER 403State, with its faunal extension, the northwestern portion of BajaCalifornia. The range of the species extends from the western slopesof the Sierra Nevada and the higher mountains of southern Cali-fornia to the Pacific, and from the head of the Sacramento Valley toabout latitude 30? in Baja California.As pointed out by Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1917), it is predominantlya species of the Upper Sonoran Zone, being most abundant alongthe bases of the mountains, where it ascends the brushy southerly andwesterly slopes to an altitude of at least 5,000 feet in the southernpart of the State, but never enters the Transition Zone coniferousforests. Its lower limits, however, are less strictly defined, especiallytoward the south, where it follows the brush-bordered watercoursesdown into the Lower Sonoran. Dr. Grinnell suggests that a certaindegree of atmospheric humidity may also be a requisite for this species,as it fails to follow the Upper Sonoran Zone aromid the southern endof the Sierra Nevada into apparently suitable territory on the east-ern slope of the range.The California thrasher has occasionally been found nesting on thedesert side of the San Gabriel, San Bernardino, and San JacintoMountains, in the territory of the crissal and LeConte's thrashers,but in general both high mountains and deserts constitute effective bar-riers to its spread. As to its ecological relationships, Dr. Grinnell(1917) says:The California Thrasher is a habitual forager beneath dense and continuouscover. Furtliermore, probably two-thirds of its foraging is done on the ground.In seeking food above ground, as when patronizing cascara bushes, the thrasherrarely mounts to an exposed position, but only goes as high as is essential tosecuring the coveted fruits. The bird may be characterized as semi-terrestrial,but always dependent upou vegetational cover ; and this cover must be of thechaparral type, open next to the ground, with strongly interlacing branch-workand evergreen leafy canopy close above?not forest under-growth, or close-set,upright stems as in new-growth willow, or matted leafage as in rank-growingannual herbage.In these favored haunts throughout its range the thrasher is asso-ciated w^ith two other birds of rather similar coloration, the browntowhee and the wren-tit. Like the towhee, the thrasher holds no preju-dice against civilization but becomes a common and by no means shydooryard resident of the foothill towns.In comparing the species of this genus, William L. Engels (1940)writes: "The California * * * thrasher appears to have fewcharacters in common with the brown thrasher : the bill is very longand markedly decurved, sicklelike ; the bird's upper parts are grayishbrown and the underparts somewhat lighter in color, but without thedark streaks so distinctive of the brown thrasher. The migratorybrown thrasher, in its daily rounds, progresses predominantly byflight; the nonmigratory California thrasher is a swift and skillful
404 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
ruiiner and makes little use of its wings in moving about. Other spe-cies of the genus are intermediate in various respects between thesetwo extremes."He also finds that the three species occurring regularly in California,redivivum, Zecontei, and dorsale, form a group distinguished fromthe more eastern members of the genus not only in their plain colora-tion and longer, more curved bills, but also in their reluctant flightand their strong digging propensities. Furthermore, when on theground, according to Mr. Engels, "the tail is held low in rufum, hen-direi and curvirostre; it is carried up at a sharp angle in redivivum,dorsale and leconteVThe typical form of the California thrasher occupies the southernportion of the territory, as far north as Monterey and Placer Coun-ties. It differs from the northern subspecies in the more grayishbrown of the general plumage and the white rather than buffy colorof the throat.Nesting.?^The nesting habits of the California thrasher offer littleof divergence from those of others of its genus and family, aside fromthe notable length of its breeding season. The birds apparentlyremain mated throughout the year, and Mrs. Grace Tompkins Sargent( 1940) mentions one brood having been brought off in Pasadena duringthe month of November 1935. Other occupied nests have been reportedfor each subsequent month up to at least July. February and March,however, are more usual months for the opening of the nesting season,the raising of the second brood often lasting well into summer.The nests are usually placed within a few feet of the ground, wellinside a large bush or scrubby tree. Dense masses of foliage areavoided, but the sites are usually well screened from outside view.In its construction the nest closely resembles that of mockingbirdsbuilding in the same locality, except of its slightly larger size andcoarser materials, in proportion to the sizes of the birds. The founda-tion and body of the structure are composed of stiff, rough twigs, witha lining of rootlets, fibers, grasses, or other flexible material.When incubating or brooding, the thrashers often show little fearwhen approached, and W. Leon Dawson (1923) tells of picking upone of the birds and turning it around on its nest so that it would facehis camera ! They are, nevertheless, cautious in their approach to thenest, as Mr. Engels (1940) mentions: "Of two pairs of Californiathrashers whose nesting activities I observed, I never saw a birdapproach the nest in any way but through the bush, working up fromthe base after coming to it on the ground. One nest was about 4 feetabove ground in a bush, and the birds here often left in the same man-ner in which they had come?except when frightened off, when theyflew down to the ground." By this habit of approaching the nest from
CALIFORNIA THRASHER 405the ground, and by the reluctance of the sitting bird to be flushed, thethrasher guards well the secret of its nesting site.Eggs.?[Author's note : The California thrasher lays two to foureggs to a set, apparently oftener three than four and only rarely two.These are mostly ovate, with variations toward elliptical-ovate orshort-ovate. They are only slightly glossy. The ground color is "Nileblue," "pale Nile blue," or even paler blue. They are more or lessevenly covered with small spots, flecks, or fine dots of pale browns;these are often very faint and sometimes much scattered; they arevery rarely conspicuously spotted, or even dotted with darker browns.The measurements of 50 eggs in the United States National Museumaverage 30.1 by 21.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 34.0 by 21.3, 30.5 by 22.9, 26.4 by 20.8, and 30.9 by 19.8 milli-meters.]Young.?According to Mrs. Irene G. Wheelock (1904), "both sexesassist in the construction of the bulky nest, and both brood on theeggs. In 14 days the naked pink young emerge from the shells and arefed by regurgitation for 4 days, or until their eyes open." And fromthe same source : "The young thrashers leave the nest when 12 to 14days old, but are fed by the adults for some time after. I have foundthe male caring for a fully fledged brood, while his mate was sittingon a nestful of eggs ; and after this second series were hatched, he atonce began to feed them as faithfully as he had fed the first."In refutation of the theory that "a parent bird is moved to feed itsyoung only by that young bird's opening its mouth," Ernest I. Dyer(1939) cited the behavior of this species, stating that "in the case ofevery one of the 15 or 20 nests of the California Thrasher which [thewriter] has had under observation at his home, at 'reading distance,'there have been innumerable instances of one or the other of the par-ents' persistently trying to induce a totally unresponsive chick, byduckings and bill-proddings, to open its mouth to receive food."The bills of the nestlings are proportionately shorter and much lesscurved than those of the adults. After the young appear fully maturein other respects, their bills are still noticeably short. Since the maxi-mum sicklelike development of the bill is seen in comparatively fewindividuals, it might be surmised that the growth of this member con-tinues through a part, at least, of the adult life.Plumages.?[Author's note: According to Ridgway (1907), theyoung are "essentially like adults but browner above, with larger wing-coverts and tertials margined terminally with lighter cinnamon-brownish, the rectrices more or less rusty brownish terminally ; chestless grayish (more brownish), sometimes only slightly different fromgeneral color of under parts."The postjuvenal molt of young birds occurs mainly in July, and the758066?18 27
406 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe late-summer molt of the thrasher is perhaps more noticeablethan that of any other California land bird. In this it contrastsstrongly with the mockingbird, which is seldom seen in a disheveledstate. During this period following the end of the nesting season,individuals can always be seen in smooth, neat plumage, and othersin a very ragged condition. The latter birds show no inclination toseek seclusion, but pursue their usual activities.]Food.?In an examination of 82 stomachs of this species, Prof. F.E. L. Beal (1907) found vegetable food to exceed animal in the ratioof 59 to 41. Carabidae constituted 3.8 percent, other beetles 6 percent,the most numerous being darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae) and Maybeetles (Scarabaeidae). "But very few weevils or other species thatlive on trees or foliage were found. Of all the insects, Hymenoptera arethe most abundant, as they are also the most constant element of thethrasher's food. About half of these are ants, the rest wasps andbees. * * * Together they make up something more than 12 per-cent of the food of the year. Two specimens of worker honey-bees(Apis mellifera) were found in one stomach." Caterpillars, cocoons,and moths amounted to 8 percent, mostly eaten during winter, prob-ably while hibernating ; spiders and myriapods formed 6 percent.Of the vegetable food. Prof. Beal found 18 percent represented byfruit, "probably not of much value." Seeds of blackberries or rasp-berries, elderberry, cascara, and manzanita were present. The seedsof poison oak and other species of Rhus formed 14 percent. "Theywere not found in many stomachs, but appear to be eaten in consider-able quantities when eaten at all." The miscellaneous part of thevegetable food, amounting to 26 percent, consisted of mast, weed seed,galls, and rubbish. Professor Beal concludes : "It is not probable thatthe California thrasher will ever become of special economic interestunless under very exceptional circumstances. In the meantime it per-forms its part in the great work of reducing the vast numbers ofinsects."The thrashers will eat figs and cactus fruit, such as that of the cul-tivated "spineless" Opwitia^ but as a rule they show little interest inany kind of fruit too large to be swallowed whole ; obviously the shapeof the bill is not well adapted to biting. They are very fond of grapes,especially the small seedless varieties, and display gi-eat persistencein finding openings through any sort of net that may be put over them.They relish also the berrylike grains of the pomegranate, available tothem after the splitting of the hard rind. As with many other birds,offerings of crumbs and table scraps seem to be most acceptable in coolweather, or when there are families to be fed. At times Californiathrashers will visit a feeding-table regularly and eat quantities of drybread crumbs, a food which the mockingbird only occasionally deigns
CALIFORNIA THRASHER ' 407to notice ; in general, however, the food preferences of the two speciesare similar.Behavior.?Prominent among the characteristics of this species isits adaptation and preference for the terrestrial mode of life. On theground it is swift, efficient, and at ease; but when forced to take tothe air, its jerky flight, accomplished by labored beating of its shortwings, and with awkwardly drooping head and tail, offers the greatestpossible contrast to the graceful buoyancy of its relative and frequentneighbor the mockingbird. The thrasher's usual gait is a brisk run,even when proceeding a very short distance. In moving only a stepor two, it may either walk or hop. While the bird is running, the tailis tilted upward, but when perching it is held in line with the bodyor drooping slightly.The California thrasher, in its native hamits, has frequently beenreferred to as a shy bird ; perhaps, however, this is mainly due to thenature of its usual surroundings, which make keeping out of sightan easy matter. In our dooryards it is one of the least timorous ofbirds, paying not the slightest attention to any unusual parapher-nalia, such as a camera and tripod, and showing no aversion to lawnsand other open spaces. In its attitude toward other birds it is boldand confident, and the California jay, of equal size, deems it prudentto defer to the thrasher at the feeding-table. Among themselves thethrashers are not quarrelsome; sometimes they are seen chasing oneanother about on the ground, but this often seems to be in a spiritof play.In its territory the thrasher is unique in its method of foraging.Most of its animal food is obtained by raking away fallen leaves orby digging in the soil. In the words of Dr. Grinnell (1917), "Thebird's most conspicuous structural feature, the long curved bill, is usedto whisk aside the litter, and also to dig, pick-fashion, into soft earthwhere insects lie concealed. Ground much frequented by Thrashersshows numerous little pits in the soil surface, less than an inch deep,steep on one side and with a little heap of earth piled up on theopposite side." In the Point Lobos Keserve, according to Grinnelland Linsdale (1936), "the most suitable foraging situation was theaccumulation of leaf litter beneath the ceanothus bushes." Flowerbeds also are favored resorts, and in their entirely laudable searchfor cutworms and other pests, the birds are apt to annoy gardenersby digging up newly planted bulbs and seeds. On the technique ofdigging, Mr. Engels (1940) writes:The food which it obtains from the ground and surface debris beneath thechaparral cover is procured entirely by means of the long, curved bill. Thefeet are never employed for scratching, but ground spiders, grubs, and cricketsare dug out of the ground ; the curved bill is struck into the ground with rapidstrokes of the head and neck, and the dirt "hooked" back and out with a power-ful pull of the neck. Side-to-side sweeps of the bill are also frequent in the
408 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMdigging operation, but most of the dirt is thrown backward. Rather large ob-jects may be thus moved ; I once saw a California thrasher toss a clod of dirthalf the size of my fist a distance of nearly 2 feet.The bill is not always kept closed during the digging operation ; the mandiblesare frequently separated by a few millimeters, being then driven into the groundlike a two-pronged fork rather than a single pick. This was seen more oftenin the "hooks" and "pulls" than in the "lateral sweeps". Once an opening ismade in the ground surface, many direct downthrusts or pokes are made. Whendigging, the bird frequently stops, cocks its head far to one side, bringing oneeye to bear directly on the work, and seems to peer into the excavation.* * * All parts of the body except the wings are brought into play in thisoperation, each contributing its share to the sum of the forces which producethe powerful digging strokes and the return of the body to an easy, balancedposition.That the use of the bill for opening nuts may involve a possiblehazard is indicated by a manuscript note from Mrs. Amelia S. Allen,of Berkeley : "One came to the tray with a hazelnut stuck on its beak.It tried to knock it off by striking it against the tray; then flew tothe ground and pecked; then to a branch where it rubbed the shellagainst its foot. It disappeared in the brush with the shell still onits beak."Though most of the habitat of this species is deficient in water, thethrashers make frequent use of it in hot weather if it is provided.They appear to drink very copiously, but it may be merely that theshape of the bill makes drinking a tedious process. In view of thefact that wasps are reported to make up a considerable portion oftheir diet, it is strange to note the almost ludicrous attitude of alarminduced by the arrival of one of these insects at a bird bath where athrasher is drinking. In cooler weather, water is utilized for bathing,which is done in a practiced and thorough manner.Under only one circumstance does the California thrasher forgetits affinity for the earth and its inclination to remain as close to it aspossible. Wlien it feels the urge to sing it seeks the most conspicuousposition available, the topmost twig of a large bush or small tree. Thesong ended, it spreads its wings and glides back to earth. At no timedoes it share the fondness of many other ground-foraging birds forthe roofs of buildings.Voice.?The California thrasher is not ordinarily a voluble bird,nor are its call notes varied. As it goes about its usual business itoccasionally utters a flat and unmusical chcwk, or more rarely a harshnote of alarm. It is only when it mounts to the top of a bush or treeand pours out its rich song that its vocal abilities may be appreciated.At its best, the song of the thrasher is one of the finest of bird songs,probably less fluent than that of the mockingbird, but deeper andricher. Its quality varies greatly, probably both with the ability ofthe individual and the mood of the singer. Mrs. Sargent (1940) foundthat a female which she watched for more than a year also sang on
CALIFORNIA THRASHER 409
certain occasions, sometimes "loudly and sweetly," and says that inJanuary the mated pair once sang together for about 15 minutes andfor shorter periods at other times. While winter and early springseem to be the seasons of greatest vocal activity, the thrasher's songmay be heard intermittently at almost any time of year.Like the mockingbird, the California thrasher often interpolatesinto its song the utterances of other birds, including, according toJohn Van Denburgh (1899), the flicker, house finch, quail, goldfinch,and black-headed grosbeak. Ornithologists differ in their estimatesof the thrasher's ability as a mimic, most of them ranking it belowthe mockingbird. My experience, however, has been the reverse, andit seems probable that there are individuals in both species that areoutstandingly proficient. One midwinter day I was surprised to hearthe unmistakable buglelike notes of Bullock's oriole, a summer visitant,and traced them to a California thrasher singing on the top of a bush.Again, late in summer, the song of a thrasher contained notes re-sembling those of the robin, a winter visitor here. These incidentsseem to indicate that the thrasher's memory is at least several monthslong.Another striking demonstration of mimicry, perhaps by the samethrasher, was the reproduction of the short howl or wail of the coyote.Such was the ventriloquial effect and the perfection of the renditionthat even as I watched the bird singing on the top of a nearby bush,it would have been difficult to believe that I was not actually hearing acoyote in the distance had not the wails fitted perfectly between thephrases of the song.Mrs. Allen (MS.) has noted the following imitations by thrashersat Berkeley: long-tailed chat, red-tailed hawk, robin, ruby-crownedkinglet, olive-sided flycatcher, titmouse, house wren, willow goldfinch,California jay, quail, purple finch, European blackbird, frog, andpostman's whistle. Most of these were recorded in September. Ineight different years she found the song period marking the comple-tion of the molt to begin in August ; in 11 years the starting of terri-torial song ranged from December 21 to February 22.Field marks.?The California thrasher's long, decurved bill is suffi-cient to distinguish it from any other bird ordinarily seen within itsterritory. When its bill is not visible, it might be mistaken for a browntowhee, but the tail is appreciably longer and is often tilted up. In andaround the passes leading from the Pacific slope to the desert, the rangeof this species is said to slightly overlap the territories of the crissaland LeConte's thrashers. From LeConte's the California thrasher isdistinguished by its darker color and somewhat longer, more curvedbill ; with the crissal it agrees rather closely in size, coloring, and shapeof bill, the identification being based principally on the color of theunder tail coverts, cinnamon in the California thrasher, cinnamon-
410 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
rufous in the crissal. In the California and LeConte's thrashers, theiris is always brown; in the crissal it is usually represented as lightyellow, though Ridgway (1907) described it as brown; in other speciesof the genus the iris is yellow or orange.Enemies.?Hearing a succession of frenzied shrieks in the yard oneday, I hastened out to find a thrasher in the grip of a sharp-shinnedhawk. Upon seeing me the hawk immediately flew away, leaving itsintended victim apparently little the worse for the encounter. Inthis instance the thrasher's vocal chords had proved its best de-fensive weapon.From the nature of its habits the thrasher would seem to be especiallyvulnerable to terrestrial enemies, but it is undoubtedly a bird of morethan average sagacity, and I have seen no indication that many of theadults fall victim to cats or other prowlers. Because of the scantheight at which the nest is usually placed, there must be a considerableloss from semiterrestrial nest-robbers, such as skunks, banded racers,and perhaps alligator lizards, as well as from the California jay.Dr. Grinnell (1917) surmises that in view of the thrasher's dullbrown coloration, swiftness of foot, and poor flight, the chaparral covermay be quite as valuable in its protective effect as it is in furnishing asuitable foraging groimd. DISTRIBUTIONRange.?California and northwestern Baja California; nonmigra-tory.The California thrasher is found north in California to extremesouthern Humboldt County (Thorn) ; central Trinity County (Hay-fork) ; Shasta County (Baird) ; and Tehama County (Manton).East to Tehama County (Manton) ; the western slope of the SierraNevada (Grass Valley, Placerville, Murphy, El Portal, and WalkerPass) ; western San Bernardino County (Hesperia and Redlands)
;
Riverside County (Palm Springs) ; eastern San Diego County(Jacumba) ; and northwestern Baja California (Hanson Laguna,Sierra San Pedro Martir, and San Fernando) . South to northwest-ern Baja California (San Fernando and Rosario). West to thePacific Ocean in Baja California (Rosario, San Quintin, and En-senada) ; and California (San Diego, Los Angeles, Santa Barbara,Monterey, Nicasio, Ukiah, Cummings, and Thorn).The range as given for the entire species is divided into two sub-species. The Sonoma thrasher {T. r. sonomae) occurs in the northernpart of the range south to Eldorado, San Joaquin, and Santa CruzCounties; the California thrasher {T. r. redivwicm) occupies therange from there southward.Egg dates.?California: 132 records, December 15 to June 27; 72records, March 20 to May 8, indicating the height of the season.
SONOMA THRASHER 411TOXOSTOMA REDIVIVUM SONOMAE GrinnellSONOMA THRASHERHABITSThis northern race of the well known California thrasher is de-scribed by Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1915) as "similar to T. r. redivimmi,but size slightly greater and back, chest and sides less 'warm' in toneof brown; similar to T. r. pasadenense, but size, especially of foot,greater, and coloration throughout darker, less ashy."He says that it is a "fairly common resident of the Upper Sonoranzone around the upper end of the Sacramento Valley and thence westthrough the inner coast ranges north of San Francisco Bay." Itprobably intergrades with the more southern race in the vicinity ofPlacer County. It has been recorded from Shasta, Marin, Mendocino,and Solano Counties.I cannot find in the literature, or in contributed notes, anythingto indicate that this thrasher differs at all in its habits from theclosely related California thrasher, which has been so well treatedby Mr. Woods.In the Lassen Peak region, Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1930)found this thrasher living mainly in the scrub-oak chaparral. Onenest was found in an isolated clump of buckbrush, and other nestswere seen in clumps of scrub oaks.The eggs are indistinguishable from those of the Californiathrasher. The measurements of 25 eggs average 31.2 by 21.5 milli-meters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 33.1 by 22.2, 31.9by 22.7, 29.2 by 21.2, and 31.3 by 19.5 millimeters.TOXOSTOMA LECONTEI LECONTEI LawrenceLECONTE'S THRASHERPlates 81-83HABITSFor many years after its discovery LeConte's thrasher was con-sidered one of the rarest and most elusive of the desert birds. Dr.Edgar A. Mearns (1886) gives a brief historical sketch of it, fromwhich I quote as follows
:
"This Thrasher is at once the oldest and least known species ofthe genus in Arizona. Originally described by George N. Lawrencein 1851, from a specimen taken at the mouth of the Gila Kiver, nearFort Yuma, it was not again met with by naturalists for a decade,when Dr. Cooper added it to the avifauna of California, stating thatit was not uncommon in certain portions of the route between theColorado Valley and the coast slope of California. * * * In 1865,Dr. Coues took a fourth specimen, in the month of September, near
412 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe Colorado River above Fort Mojave. * * * The fifth specimenwas taken by Mr. F. Stephens, on February 21, 1880, in centralArizona."Thus, in a period of nearly 30 years after its discovery, only fivespecimens were collected ! During the next 5 years much hard workon the part of Mr. Stephens, Dr. Mearns, and others brought thetotal number of specimens up to about two dozen. During that timeand since then much has been learned about its habits and distribution,and much has been written about its elusiveness and the difficulty ofcollecting it.LeConte's thrasher lives mainly in the lowest, barrenest, and hot-test desert plains and valleys of southwestern Arizona and southeast-ern California, where, according to Frank Stephens (1884), "the ther-mometer gets to 100? in the shade in April, and even to 130? in Julyand August." The sun beats down with torrid fury on the white sand
;
the climate is so excessively dry that it is dangerous to travel without agood supply of water ; and one's mouth, throat, and nostrils soon be-come uncomfortably dry and parched, as the terrific heat dries up allthe natural moisture in the body. Then, too, I found that the groundwas so hot that the soles of my feet became blistered and pealed, ifI wore thin shoes.Dr. C. Hart Merriam (1895) describes this desert region very wellas follows
:
The great Colorado River, emerging from the marvellous canons of northernArizona, bends southward to traverse a vast, inhospitable desert, parts of which,below the level of the sea, surpass the deserts of India, Arabia, and even the greatSahara in heat, aridity and desolation. * * *These deserts receive little water: the rainfall is meagre, the streams from thesurrounding mountains soon disappear in the hot sands, and the broad Coloradoitself hurries on to the sea as if in a conduit, without imparting verdure to evenits immediate banks save in a few favored spots. The vegetation is scanty andpeculiar : the sandy gravel slopes are covered with the i*esinous Larrea or creosotebush, more or less mixed with cactuses, yuccas, daleas, ephedras and other desertforms, while the alkaline and saline clay soils are dotted here and there withgreasewoods and fleshy saline plants.Near the Gila River Dr. Mearns (1886) found that the desert "coun-try was bare of grass, sandy, and covered with scattered sagebrushand cacti {Ojnmtia^ Echinocereus, Gereus^ and Echinocactus) , with oc-casional bare areas of white sand, where the sun's reflection wasterrible."I made my acquaintance with LeConte's thrasher on the MojaveDesert in southeastern California, where it seems to be as abundantas anywhere. Driving out eastward from Victorville, we passedthrough the rocky ramparts of Deadman's Point, among the pictur-esque Joshua-trees, or tree yuccas, of that section, onto the broadlevel plain of the desert, bordered on the north by numerous rough.
LECONTE'S THRASHER 413rocky hills or low mountains and on the south by the then snow-cappedSan Bernardino Mountains. The floor of the desert was dry and hot,sparsely covered with a scattered growth of creosote bushes, so widelyseparated that we could easily drive anywhere among them on thehard, sandy floor and so scantily branched as to afford a minimum ofshade beneath them. A few stunted mesquites relieved the monotony,and there were scattered clumps or more often individual bushes ofchollas ( Opuntia echinocarpa^ the branching cholla, Opimtia higelovii,the white cholla, or Opuntia ramocissima, the long-spined species) . Aswe wended our way in and out among the scattered desert vegetation,we frequently saw these sandy-colored thrashers running rapidlyahead of us or dodging in low flight among and under the creosotebushes.There are two northward extensions of the breeding range of Le-Conte's thrasher in California, in Owens Valley and in the San Joa-quin Valley, where the surrounding mountain ranges shut off hot andarid valleys. While driving from Bakersville to the Kettleman Hills,through Kern County, we saw a number of LeConte's thrashers onthe arid, sagebrush plains and noted some of their old nests in thesebushes ; my host, J. R. Pemberton, told me that they nest regularly inthe sagebushes in this region.Of the haunts of this thrasher in the San Joaquin Valley, Dr. JosephGrinnell (1933) writes:The most conspicuous element in the perennial vegetation about was aspecies of salt-bush. Fragments saved have been identified for me by Dr. H. F,Copeland, of the Herbarium, University of California, as Atriplex polycarpa.* * * The bushes of it grow small and far-scattered on exposed, high terrain
;
but in low places, in ravines and along gullies, washes, or arroyos the bushes groweight or ten feet in diameter, and five feet or more high, and may crowd togetherhere or there along a favorable draw to form a continuous thicket. It is thepresence of this more luxuriant growth of atriplex that, together with muchopen ground between the scattering bushes nearby, and the general climaticconditions of high temperature and low humidity, appears to form the finalrequirement controlling the presence and relative numbers of the LeConteThrashers in the San Joaquin Valley."Nesting.?The nests that we saw in the Mojave Desert were allalike and similarly placed in the chollas (Optmtia echinocarpa, O.higelovii^ or O. ramoGissimu) . The birds seemed to select the densest,most thickly branched chollas, where the nests could be located but noteasily seen; in many cases it was necessary to chop away severalbranches before the nest could be clearly seen, or even before the handcould be safely inserted among the many bristling spines (see pi. 81)
.
The nests were very bulky, often filling a large central space amongthe sprawling branches, to which they were insecurely attached butsafely supported and guarded. The bulk of the nest consisted of agreat mass of thorny twigs and sticks, filling most of the space, on which
414 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMwas firmly imbedded a thick mass of the flower chisters of a fine, gray,woolly plant that grew abundantly on the surrounding desert; thisformed the lining of the nest proper and made a soft bed for the eggsor young; this silvery gray lining was charcteristic of all the nests,distinguishing them from the nests of all other desert birds, at leastin that locality. The nests were easy to find, as they were generallyin isolated chollas, and it was only necessary to drive over the smoothdesert floor, in and out among the small, scattered creosote bushes, andlook at each likely looking cholla. The chollas were not large speci-mens, and the nests averaged about 3 feet above ground. We saw anumber of old nests, which in that dry climate persist for severalyears, though the soft lining rots and becomes a sodden mass.The nesting habits and the nests of LeConte's thrasher are somewhatdifferent in other localities. As already stated, we found the old nestsin sage bushes on the more arid plains of Kern County and the upperSan Joaquin Valley in California. G. Holterhoff, Jr., was the firstman to discover a nest of this thrasher, or at least the first to publishan account of it. He published a brief account of it in the AmericanNaturalist for March 1881, and the following fuller account in theBulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club (1883). The nest wasfound near Flowing Wells, in the heart of the Colorado Desert.The country thereabout is a barren, sandy desert, broken by an occasionaldry arroyo or river bed, scarce worthy of the name, as they are only rivers whenbearing off the deluge from some fortuitous cloud-burst. Scattered sparinglyalong the course of these fickle streams is a stunted growth of mesquite andpalo-verde trees. * [The nest was in a thick palo-verde tree.] The nest,situated about 5 feet from the ground, was a very bulky affair, set so loosely andcarelessly amid the branches that a considerable foundation had been throwntogether before the structure was firm enough to bear the nest proper. This wascomposed of the thorny sticks and twigs of mesquite, loosely intercrossed, andthe interior rather neatly lined with reddish fibres and rootlets. The externaldimensions were about 9 inches in depth and 6 inches in width at the top;interior, depth 3 inches and width about 4 inches. The cavity was deep enoughto conceal the sitting bird, except as to its projecting tail.M. French Oilman (1904) says that of 28 nests, found betweenBanning, Calif., and Salton Sea, "all but 4 were in the cholla cactus, theothers being as follows: 1 in a mesquite, 1 in an unidentified desertshrub and 2 in thorn trees, about as bad as the cholla." He continues
:
Climatic variations in the seasons appear to have an effect on the numbersof the birds. In seasons of more than normal rainfall they seem more numerousand nest more than in dry seasons. The spring of 1895 was a very favorableone, the desert enjoying heavy spring rains, and consequently an abnormalgrowth of vegetation, making the desert wastes a perfect flower garden. Thesand hills were covered with desert primroses, acres of country were tinged pinkwith the sand verbenas or abronias and other acres were flaming with the yellowannual encelias. Insect life fairly swarmed and birds, especially Lecontethrashers and mockingbirds, were more numerous than before or since. I foundeight Leconte's nests on one trip near Palm Springs and saw many of the birds.
LECONTE'S THRASHER 415The next 3 years were dry on the desert and I saw only six nests, though fre-quently in their territory.A nest found by Dr. Mearns (1886) between Casa Grande andSweet Water was "placed in a mesquite, at a height of 6 or 8 feet. Itrested upon a fork and received additional support from a neighboringbranch. It was composed of fine grasses and weeds, the inner nestresting upon a mass of large sticks, loosely placed. The nest-lining wasof grass and a few feathers."Tlie nests found by Dr. Grinnell (1933) in the San Joaquin Valleywere all in saltbushes {Atriplex polycarpa) . Of the first nest he says
:
"The nest bush was one of a row of large-sized atriplex bushes growingirregularly along the edges of a meandering gully in the bottom ofa shallow draw. * * * The nest was not in the center of the bush,but was situated in the dense tangle of twigs about 700 mm. east ofits axis, resting among the complexly branching stems which variedin slant from nearly horizontal to nearly vertical." The nest was 550mm. below the crown of the bush and 670 mm. above the ground.Grinnell continues
:
The substructure * * * consisted of straggling, dry twigs, long and varyinglyslender, hardly distinguishable at the periphery from the surrounding dense leaflesstwiggery of the bush itself. How the bird could have managed the constructionof this basal shell in such close quarters, so as to provide the proper space forthe nest-proper, it was difficult for me to imagine. The inside diameter of thenest cup was 95 mm., depth from its solid rim, 60 mm. The entire inside cupwas astonishingly firm, almost as if made of mud ; it consisted of atriplex leavesand weathered bits of newspaper packed together so as to be of almost the firm-ness of pulp-board. Possibly the rains of the preceding month had had some-thing to do with yielding this result ; but even so, there was no resemblance at allto the porous, open-work, inner lining of a California Thrasher's nest?nothingfor the young birds to clinch their toes and claws through. In this nest therewas also a sharply distinguishable intermediate layer, of long fine grass stemsand slender twigs ; but none of this material reached the inner wall.At San Felipe, Baja California, Laurence M. Huey (1927) foundoccupied nests "in ocotillo, cholla cactus, fruitea, smoke bush and iron-wood trees, while old nests were found in nearly all the species of brush,tree.s or cactus that offered size enough for protection."Eggs.?Two to four eggs constitute a full set for LeConte's thrasher.Mr. Gilman (1904) says that the "usual set contains three eggs but fourare not uncommon and two are sometimes found. Of the records madeI find 6 sets of 4 eggs, 12 of 3, and 4 of 2?complete sets as advanced in-cubation showed." They vary in shape from ovate to short ovate,or elongate ovate, and are sometimes somewhat pointed at the smallerend. They have a very slight gloss.The eggs are somewhat similar to those of the California thrasheror those of Palmer's thrasher ; they are smaller than the former andabout the size of the latter ; but they are usually less heavily markedthan either. The ground color is light greenish blue or light bluish
41(5 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMgreen, "pale Nile blue," or "beryl blue," or "pale turquoise green."These colors fade considerably in collections, as well as in the nests
;
fresh eggs in the nest may be somewhat more deeply colored than asabove indicated.The markings are usually fine pinpoints, or very small spots, moreor less evenly distributed over the whole egg or concentrated aboutthe larger end, sometimes forming a ring; some eggs are nearly im-maculate. The markings are in shades of pale brown, reddish brown,or yellowish brown. Dr. Grinnell (1933) says from "Mars Brown"(darkest) to "Pale Purple Vinaceous" [lightest]. Rarely, the spotsare large enough to be called blotches. Dr. Mearns (1886) says thatone egg "has large blotches of yellowish-brown and lavender sparinglyscattered over the egg, a few extending nearly to the small extremity."The measurements of 50 eggs average 27.6 by 19.7 millimeters ; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 29.9 by 21.2 and 24.3 by 18.3millimeters.Young.?The period of incubatipn for LeConte's thrasher does notseem to have been determined, and we apparently do not know justhow long the young remain in the nest. But we do know that boththe male and the female help to build the nest and share in the incuba-tion of the eggs, and both work in the feeding and care of the young.The breeding season is a long one, and at least two broods are ordi-narily raised in a season.Plmnages.?Ridgway (1907) says that the juvenal plumage is "sim-ilar to the spring and summer adult plumage but slightly paler,especially on rump; under parts more bulFy with under tail-covertsmuch paler buff ; upper tail-coverts pale wood brown or Isabella color."In spring and summer adult plumage the upper parts are between
"drab-gray" and "ecru-drab," and the under tail coverts are deepbuff or "pale ochraceous-buff." In fall and winter plumage adultshave the "color of upper parts deeper and grayer (soft drab-gray)chest (br.oadly) light drab-gray, strongly contrasted with the whiteof the throat, and breast and upper abdomen duller, more buffywhitish." I have seen specimens in full juvenal plumage as earlyas April 7, and one taken May 16 that was beginning the postjuvenalmolt. I have examined adults in full postnuptial molt on July 5 andon August 7.Food.?The stomach of a specimen sent to William Brewster (1882a)is said to have "contained a small species of katydid and some ants."This seems to be the only published item on the food of this species.Behavior.?LeConte's thrasher is a decidedly terrestrial species. Aswe drive across the level floor of the desert, we may see a long, slim,dull, clay-colored bird running swiftly ahead of us or dodging outof sight among the low creosote bushes, or perhaps making shortzigzag flights close to the ground or just over the tops of the bushes,
LECONTE'S THRASHER 417trying to keep out of sight but always able to outdistance us even inthe open. Its speed is hardly less swift than that of the swift-footedlizards that scurry away from us. It suggests a miniature roadrunnerin behavior, than which it is hardly less fleet of foot or less adept athiding among the scanty vegetation. It sometimes carries its longtail straight out behind as the roadrunner does, but more often it iscocked up at a sharp angle, showing its buff under-tail coverts.Dr. Mearns (1886) says: "When flying they dropped low down,and performed a part of each flight in a tortuous course under coverof the sage brush, ascending to the top of a mesquite like a Shrike.* * * Their speed when running upon the ground is truly wonder-ful. A pair of them were running upon the railroad, and for a littleway kept ahead of our trotting horses with ease."Frank Stephens (1884) worked hard to collect his specimens of thisthrasher, which he found most elusive and exasperating ; he tells thefollowing story of one of his attempts which illustrates this pointand was quite typical of the bird's behavior
:
I heard a low song, and standing still and looking about me I saw H. leconteinumber four sitting on a low bush not far away. He observed me about thesame time, and went off to another low bush. As he flew along I dropped amongthe weeds, meaning to do my best to get him. I crept along among weeds thatwere not large enough to hide me, but could get no better cover. I soon sawthat he was watching me, and concluded that my game was up, but workedalong, flattened as close to the ground as I could get, for several yards, whenI came to a wash a few feet wide and a foot or so deep. I meant to try to reachand cross it, and fire from the opposite side, though it was long range. Hewatched me closely until I got down in the wash, where I swung my gun aroundand slowly raised it to fire, when I saw that he had absconded. I didn't swear,oh, no ! You wouldn't either under such circumstances, would you? The "con-founded fool" had watched me as long as he could see me, and when I hid inthe wash he evidently thought it was time for him to go. Perhaps he was notsuch a fool after all.Voice.?I never had the pleasure of hearing the song of LeConte'sthrasher, but those who have heard it have praised it, as a very sweetsong much like the songs of other thrashers. Vernon Bailey, in Mrs.Bailey's Handbook (1902), writes: "After a cool night on the desertin March, when the morning is loaded with the fragrance of abronias,yuccas, and primroses, and the crimson and gold cups of the cactusare brilliant among the creosote bushes, the thrashers are heard fairlysplitting their throats from the mesquite tops, and seen running aboutchasing each other over the bare stretches between the bushes. Laterin the day they rest in the shade of the chaparral."While singing, the bird sits in thrasher fashion, with its tail hang-ing down, its head thrown back, and its long, curved bill wide open.After silence during the intense heat of midday, he sings again in theevening coolness, sometimes far into the clear, starry, desert night.Mr. Oilman (1904) writes:
418 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWhile standiug one evening on a high-drifted hill of white sand about 2 mileswest of the rim of ancient Salton sea I heard the sweet strains of a new birdsong and began to look for the singer. I expected to find a mocking bird whoseindividuality had been developed by the desert solitudes and who had learneda new song. On an adjoining sand hill, perched on the exposed tip of a sandburied mesquite I saw the singer?a LeConte thrasher. Perhaps environmentenhanced the music for the spot was a most lonesome, God-forsaken one, nearan ancient Indian encampment and burial ground, but I have heard no sweeterbird song and the memory still lingers. Since then I have heard the song afew times but not oftener than once or twice a year, though I have been fre-quently among the birds. Not only do they seldom sing but the whistling callnote is not often heard. They appear to be silent, unsociable creatures, nevermore than a pair being found together, unless a brood of young birds and par-ents, and then only until the former can shift for themselves.Dr. Mearns (1886) says: "The Thrashers were heard singing dur-ing the early morning. Their song is remarkable for its loud, rich tone,and is at least as fine as that of any other of the genus. * * *One would sing so loudly that it could be distinctly heard for morethan a mile." He also mentions an alarm note, a "sharply reiteratedwhit^ or quity Ralph Hoffmann (1927) says that "the common callis a low whistled hew-eey^Field marks.?Over most of its range on the open desert, LeConte'sis the only thrasher likely to be met with. Here, a slender, clay-coloredbird with a long, curved bill and a long, rather blackish tail held upat an angle, as it runs, showing its rusty brown under tail coverts, isalmost sure to be this species. In a limited portion of its range itoverlaps somewhat with the California thrasher and more so with thecrissal thrasher. Both of these species are darker colored and thelatter has deeper brown under tail coverts than LeConte's. The hauntsand behavior of all three are different.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico.The LeConte's thrasher is found north to southern California(Coalinga, Huron, Kernville, Walker Pass, Owens Valley north toBenton, and Death Valley) ; southern Nevada (Ash Meadows, Charles-ton Mountains, Las Vegas, and the Virgin River Valley) ; and south-western Utah (Beaverdam Mountains and the vicinitj'^ of Zion Park).East to southwestern Utah (near Zion Park) ; western and southernArizona (Beale Spring, Fort Wliipple, Phoenix, and Picacho Peak)
;
and northwestern Sonora (Port Lobos). South to northwesternSonora (Port Lobos) ; and northeastern Baja California (San FelipeBay) ; also in western Baja California from 40 miles north of PuntaPrieta south to San Juanico Bay. West to the Pacific Ocean fromabout latitude 26? to 29? N. in Baja California and northeastern BajaCalifornia (San Felipe Bay and the west side of the Laguna Salada)
;
DESERT THRASHER 419and California east of the coastal mountains (Julian, Banning, BuenaVista, Lake McKittrick, and Coalinga).The entire species as outlined is divided into two subspecies. Le-Conte's thrasher {T. I. lecontei) is found in the United States, Sonora,and northeastern Baja California ; the desert thrasher {T. I. arenicola)is found in central western Baja California.Egg dates.?Arizona: 9 records, February 21 to June 24.California : 124 records, January 22 to June 11 ; 41 records, March18 to April 11 ; 30 records, February 10 to 28.TOXOSTOMA LECONTEI ARENICOLA (Anthony)DESERT THRASHERPlate 84HABITSA. W. Anthony (1897) described this race from a series of 16specimens collected at Rosalia Bay, Baja California. He gives itssubspecific characters as "differing from H. lecontei in upper partsbeing darker and grayer, tail blacker and breast gray, tailshorter ( ? ) ." He sent a specimen to Mr. Ridgway, who wrote tohim: "A specimen of the same sex of H. lecontei from the MojaveRiver, California, has a shorter wing and very much longer tail thanyour bird."The range of the subspecies, as given in the 1931 Check-list, includesthe Pacific coast strip between latitudes 26? and 29?.Mr. Anthony (1897) writes of its haunts and habits: "The regionimmediately back from the beach at Rosalia and Playa Maria Baysis a series of wind-swept sand dunes, with scarcely any vegetation. Afew hardy shrubs and yuccas struggle for existence and afford shel-ter for quite a number of Thrashers. A series of 16 was securedwith little effort, though the present race well maintains the reputa-tion of the species for shyness. On several occasions they wereseen on the beach, and a few were found inland, where H. cinereusmearnsi was more common. They were nowhere so plenty as in thesand dunes near the surf. Nests were found in the thickest shrubs,that were probably the present race, proving that they are resident."Grifiuig Bancroft (1930) gives us a somewhat similar impressionof the bird in its haunts, as follows
:
There comes a break in the topography of the country where the cactus andother typically desert associations give way to low sand dunes and thornlessvegetation. A marginal strip of irregular width, nowhere exceeding a fewmiles, reflects the direct influences of the ocean. This littoral is the home ofthe so-called Desert Thrasher. A better understanding of its habitat may behad by appreciating how misleading is its customary name. T. I. lecontei isthe desert dweller of the species. The "Desert" Thrasher does not wander atall into what we conceive to be the desert.
420 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMA study of old nests reveals the fact that the breeding season is long past bythe middle of May. It does not begin, however, until well into March. Thesites chosen are, of necessity, in small bushes, but there is a consistent pref-erence for those which afford the maximum protection. That desire satisfied,the birds indifferently build in the heart of the shrub or near its outer edges.The foundation is composed of thorny twigs from 3 to 6 inches in length. Theysupport a cup which, in thickness and size, is midway between that of theshrike and that of the San Lucas Thrasher. The inside walls and especiallythe bottom of the cavity are padded rather than lined .The habitat of these thrashers harmonizes well with their dull gray backs andlighter underparts. They are decidedly ground-loving birds, skulking frombush to bush and seldom flying. When alarmed, unless the fright is too sudden,they run from danger. This they do with surprising speed, taking to the aironly as a last resource. The southern shore of San Ignacio Lagoon is theirmetropolis in our cross section, but even there the birds are quite rare. In3 days we saw not more than a dozen.The eggs of the desert thrasher are like those of LeConte's thrasher.The measurements of 10 eggs average 26.8 by 19.3 ; the eggs showingthe four extremes measure 29.0 by 20.0, 25.4 by 19.3, and 26.4 by 18.7millimeters. TOXOSTOMA DORSALE DORSALE HenryCRISSAL THRASHERPlates 85, 86HABITSAlthough the range of the crissal thrasher coincides in a very generalway with much of the ranges of the three other desert thrashers, itshaunts and chosen habitats are quite different from those of the others,and they seldom overlap to any extent. LeConte's thrasher lives inthe hottest, driest, and most open deserts; Bendire's and the curve-billed thrashers are found on the slightly more fertile deserts andvalleys, where there is more vegetation, and about the ranches ; but thecrissal thrasher seldom ventures out onto the desert and prefers themore fertile valleys, canyons, and hillsides, where it can hide amongthe more abundant vegetation and in the dense thickets, often in thevicinity of water.What few crissal thrashers we saw in southern Arizona were foundin the belts of small mesquites, creosote bushes, and sagebrush thatgrew along the arroyos, in low bushy underbrush in the valleys, inthe willows along a ditch in the San Pedro Valley, and on the roughsides of the Dragoon Mountains, where mesquites, junipers, andstraggling bushes grew among the rocks. They were not very commonand were always shy and retiring.Frank Stephens told Mr. Brewster (1882a) that "he found theCrissal Thrasher in copses in valleys, and along streams. It wasespecially fond of well-shaded undergrowth, and spent much of itstime on the ground, searching for food under the bushes. It never
CRISSAL THRASHER 421
occurred among cactuses, and the only place where he saw it actuallyassociating with Bendire's and Palmer's Thrashers, was at CampLowell, where the latter species, with other desert birds, came todrink at a water-hole and thus occasionally mingled with the CrissalThrashers, which inhabited the neighboring thickets."M. French Oilman (1902) says that, on the California side of theColorado River, "great numbers of them can be found in the densethickets of mesquite and screw-bean in the depressed portion of thedesert near the Salton sink," which is from 10 to 260 feet below sealevel.Nesting.?^We found only two nests of the crissal thrasher in south-eastern Arizona in 1922. Near Fairbank, in the San Pedro Valley,on May 27, a nest containing one egg was seen about 8 feet aboveground in a vine-covered willow in a row of these trees growing alongan irrigation ditch. The other nest, found on June 1 near Tombstone,was placed 3 feet from the ground in a dense sagebush on the edge ofan arroyo, where it was well hidden (pi. 85) ; it was made of thornytwigs with a lining of fine bluish fiber ; it held three eggs.Dean Amadon (MS.) reports a nest, found near Tucson on June 24,1938, that was placed on a branch of a willow next to the trunk andabout 8 feet above ground ; this was near a ditch leading away froma pond in a brushy area ; at that date it contained one young bird, per-haps a week old, and two unhatched eggs. A set of two eggs in theF. W. Braund collection, taken near Phoenix on March 17, 1896, camefrom a nest in a catsclaw bush on the desert.A nest found by Dr. Mearns (1886) near Fort Verde, Ariz., onFebruary 18, 1886, was described as follows : "The nest was saddledupon the fork of a mesquite-bush, about 4 feet from the ground, in partsupported by the thorny branches of a neighboring bush. It restedupon a pile of sticks, and was surrounded by a bristling array ofspiny 'haw' and mesquite twigs of moderate size ; within this barricadethe nest proper was placed ; it is bowl-shaped, and, with the exceptionof a few feathers, composed entirely of vegetable substances veryneatly felted into a compact, warm nest. The principal materials arefine withered grass, stems of plants, and shreddy inner bark. Ex-ternally it measures 150 mm. in height by 300 mm. in width; theinternal depth, 45 mm. ; internal diameter, 90 mm."Mr. Oilman (1902) writes of the nests found in the Coloradodesert
:
On March 18 and 19 we found 10 nests containing eggs or young. Withone exception they were all built close up to an over-hanging limb makingit difficult to insert the hand. All but one were also in the densest part of themesquite and rather hard to see. And hard to get at too as anyone whohas crawled through a mesquite thicket can testify. The nests were from 2y-2to 6 feet from the ground?the average being about 31/2 feet and only one758066?48 28
422 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM6 feet. * * * From brief observation I should say that individual birdsnest near the same spot year after year. Nearly every nest found was nearfrom one to three old nests, probably belonging to the same bird as no newnests were ever found close to each other. In one case three nests werefound in the same tree?one new and two old ones.Nests have also been found in other bushes, such as atriplex,greasewood, wild currant, and ironwood, but never, I believe, incactus; and they are generally in thick bushes and well concealed.Mr. Gilman (1909) says of the many nests he has noted, 27 werein mesquites, "one was on top of a stump but hidden by dense,sprouting twigs. Eleven were in 'squawberry' bushes, four ingreasewood, one in a palo verde, one in a mistletoe, and one in alow brush fence."Eggs.?The complete set of eggs for the crissal thrasher may con-sist of two, three, or four, most commonly two or three. These varyfrom ovate to elliptical-ovate and have very little gloss. They lookmuch like robin's eggs, darker and greener when fresh in the nest andfading to paler shades of bluish green or greenish blue when older.Eggs that I have seen in the cabinet are usually a pale shade of robin's-
^^g blue, "pale Nile blue," or "beryl blue." They differ from all otherthrashers' eggs in being entirely unmarked. The measurements of 50eggs in the United States National Museum average 26.8 by 19.2 milli-meters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 30.5 by 19.8, 28.5by 20.8, 24.3 by 19.7 and 25.9 by 17.8 millimeters.Young.?Both sexes share the duties of incubation and care ofthe young. The long breeding season, from February to June orJuly, indicates that at least two broods are reared in a season. Mr.Gilman (1909) watched a nest from the time that the two eggswere laid until the young birds left the nest, a nesting period of30 days. "The set was completed April 6. At 6 a. m., April 20,one young was just out of the shell and the other egg pipped. At 6p. m., the same date, both young were opening their mouths andtrying to swallow my finger. No eggshell could be found. May 6thboth young birds left the nest."Mrs. Wlieelock (1904) writes: "The young Thrashers hatch in14 days. They are naked, except for the faintest suggestion of downon head and back, and are fed by regurgitation until four days old.On the ninth day the young are feathered all but the wings andtail, which still wear their sheaths, and the featherless tracts which areon all young birds. The iris of the eye is white at this time, butgradually becomes straw-color like that of the adult. Unlessstartled into an earlier exit, the Thrasher nestlings do not leave thecradle until 11 or 12 days old, and even then they hide in the bushesfor many ensuing days, helplessly waiting to be fed by the adult."Plumages.?Young crissal thrashers in juvenal plumage are very
CRISSAL THRASHER 423
similar to the adults in spring plumage but browner throughout, therich chestnut-brown of the under tail coverts being only slightlyduller; the rump and the broad tipping on the tail are brownishchestnut; the bill is shorter and smaller, and the plumage is softerand looser.After the postjuvenal molt, which involves the contour plumagebut not the wings and tail, the young bird becomes indistinguishablefrom the adult in fall plumage ; the date of this molt probably varieswith the date on which the young bird was hatched. Adults havea complete postnuptial molt during July and August ; the fresh fallplumage is slightly darker and grayer than the faded spring plumage.The sexes are practically alike in all plimiages.Food.?Very little seems to have been published on the food of thisbird. Dr. Mearns (1886) says that it is "omnivorous. It feedslargely upon berries and wild grapes. A thorny species of 'haw' isplentiful along the Rio Verde, which bears an abundance of berries,of green, red, and dark glaucous-blue colors, according to the degreeof maturity; upon these the Thrashers delight to feed. Insectsconstitute an important article of their diet at all seasons."It is said to eat juniper berries and other wild fruits. The stomachof one of the birds collected for Mr. Brewster (1882a) "containedinsects and a small lizard.''''Behavior.?The crissal thrasher is a shy, retiring bird: all oneusually sees of it is a fleeting glimpse as it darts away skillfully intoor under the brushy thickets. William L. Engels (1940) says thatthey are much like the California thrasher in their behavior
:
They prefer, likewise, dense and continuous cover, such as that afforded bymesquite thickets, to which they are almost exclusively restricted, as theCalifornia thrasher is to the chaparral. Beneath the cover of the dense mesquitethey move quickly along, in and out, with long, graceful strides, head forward,tail high, stopping here and there to dig or to whisk the litter aside in searchof food. They are likewise agile in scrambling about in the thorny trees, workingtheir way up toward the tops, the favored singing posts.Crissal thrashers, too, are little given to flight. In the field, one's most commonsight of them is a sudden, brief glimpse of a bird abruptly dropping from abushtop to the ground in a short swoop, wings outspread. Pursued, they makeoff rapidly on the ground, turning and twisting among the bushes, only occasion-ally taking to wing. Sometimes one may fly for 20 to 30 yards. One of thefew crissals I saw in flight is thus described in my field notes: ". . . its longtail held straight out behind, the head extended forward, it would make a fewrapid wingbeats ; then with outstretched wings, whicli looked ridiculously short,it would sail on, only for a few feet, and then repeat."Mrs. Bailey (1928) says that, "when tempted by water, the thicket-loving bird may come to drink with the chickens and dig in the garden,the strong pickaxe bill and large feet characteristic of the Thrashersmaking effective implements." Mrs. Wheelock (1904) also refers tohis fondness for water, saying : "Rarely will you find him nesting at
424 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMany great distance from water, and one of the first lessons he gives hisbrood is to take a morning splash. It is well worth rising at 4 a. m.to see him plunge so eagerly into the cold water and splash it in ashower of sparkling drops. The bath over, he flies up to the top of atall bush to preen his wet feathers and fill the air with melody."Voice.?Like most of the other thrashers, the crissal is a gifted song-ster. Dr. Mearns (1886) pays the following tribute to its music:One of the first traits that we noticed about it was that it possessed a song ofvery remarliable scope and sweetness, having all the power of the Mockingbird,and an evenness and perfect modulation which that bird may well envy. Itis one of the few birds that truly sing; and it shares, in this Territory, this raregift with its three congeners?Bendire's, Palmer's and LeConte's Thrashers. Itis no warbler of pretty ditties, nor yet a medley singer like the Eastern Thrasheror the Mockingbird, but discourses pure, natural music from the top of the tallestbushes, where it perches, with its tail hanging down, in precisely the same atti-tude as the Brown Thrasher of the East. Its season of song is more protractedthan that of any other species with which I am familiar. Its best efforts areput forth during the mating season, in February, March, and April ; but, exceptduring July and August, when the heat becomes intense and the Thrasher'splumage is bleached almost to whiteness, and worn to tattered shreds amongstthe thorny chaparral in which it finds food and some shelter from the sun,it sings commonly throughout the year. The warm sunshine of a winter's daysufl5ces to bring out its full song, which perchance has been hushed by a cold snapand flurry of snow. At first come a few notes of doubtful confidence, barely suf-ficing to remind one that it can sing ; then a thoughtful, somewhat desultory song,till the power of the tropical sun asserts itself, or the genial influence of itsmate is felt, when the harmonious soliloquy grows into a serene and dignifiedperformance that challenges attention and excites admiration. The OrissalThrasher is a shy bird, and only sings when it fancies itself secure from intru-sions upon its solitude ; but, about ranches, where it associates with man, it losessome of its wildness and becomes more confident and trusting.After the autumnal moult, when berries, grajies, and other acceptable foodis plentiful, there is a distinct revival of song in this species. It has no loudcall-note like the other species.Mrs. Wheelock (1904) remarks that "every note is sweet, true, andperfect, but the whole lacks the spasmodic brilliancy we are accus-tomed to expect in his family. It has a more spiritual quality butless dash."Mrs. Bailey (1928) mentions "its call notes ^queety-queety' and ascolding ^chay W. L. Dawson (1923) refers to "a solicitous note,pichoory^ pitchoory^ or yitchree' " ; also, "one very earnest fowl, nearTucson, remarked, PichoGri harriW^ fichoori karrik' in quite a briskmanner."Field TYiarks.?The crissal thrasher was formerly called the red-vented thrasher, on account of the deep reddish brown of the undertail coverts and crissum, from which, also, the name crissal wasderived. This color, which is darker and richer than in any of theother thrashers, is one of the best field marks when it can be seen.The crissal somewhat resembles the California thrasher, with a similar.
CRISSAL THRASHER 425long, curving bill, but it is somewhat smaller and their ranges do notoverlap, except in a small section of southeastern California. It isnot likely to be confused with LeConte's thrasher, for the latter is muchpaler in coloration and the habitats of the two do not overlap; thecrissal almost never ventures out onto the open desert, and LeConte'sis not likely to be seen in the shady thickets where the crissal lives,Mr. Gilman (1909) has this to say about recognizing the three speciesthat are most likely to be seen in the same habitat
:
In the field it is somewhat difficult to be sure in distinguishing the three species,Palmer, Bendire and Crissal. At close range, or if the birds are near enoughtogether to compare, it is easy enough ; but at a distance a single bird may puzzle.In general it may be said that Crissal is darkest, has more curve to his billand has a bobbing, jerky flight quite similar to that of the California thrasher.Palmer is a little larger, apparently at any rate, is lighter in color and hasmuch of the same jerky flight. Bendire is smallest and lightes.t of the three andhas a smooth, even flight. Both Palmer and Bendire have obsolete spots on thebreast and light tips to outside tail feathers, but Bendire has the more distinctspots and whiter tail tips.The crissal thrasher has no spotting on the breast, even when young.
"At close range, say on the nest, the eye is indicative. Crissal has astraw-colored iris; Palmer, orange; and Bendire, orange red."Winter.?Crissal thrashers are apparently permanently residentthroughout their range, with only altitudinal migrations in spring andfall, up to about 5,000 feet in summer and fall and down to the warmervalleys in winter. Dr. Mearns (1886) says of these movements inArizona
:
The Verde Valley here has an altitude of 3,500 feet, and a much warmer climatethan the bordering mesas and foothills, which in winter are often deeplycovered with snow. Although they may be occasionally met with in the snowbelt, most of them descend into the warmer valleys in severely cold weather.I have seen numbers of them feeding upon the bare sand upon the edge ofthe Verde River after a snowstorm. Making proper allowance for their beingmore conspicuous in winter on account of the absence of foliage, the species isundoubtedly far more plentiful in the Verde Valley during the winter seasonthan in summer, when many of those which winter here move upward into thezone of scrub oaks, in which they breed in abundance wherever they can findwater within a convenient distance. The exodus takes place about the end ofFebruary, after which the species becomes comparatively scarce; and by themiddle of March nearly all those remaining are settled and occupied withdomestic affairs. DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Sonthwestern United States and northern Mexico; non-migratory.The range of the crissal thrasher is north to southeastern California(Palm Springs, Indio, and the Providence Mountains) ; southernNevada (Cottonwood Spring in the Charleston Mountains, VegasValley, St. Thomas, and Bunkerville) ; southwestern Utah (St.
426 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMGeorge) ; central Arizona (Fort Whipple, Camp Verde, and PinalMountains) ; and southern New Mexico (Carlisle, Cliff, Bosque delApache, Tularosa, and Carlsbad). East to southern New Mexico(Carlsbad) ; western Texas (Guadalupe Mountains, Glass Mountains,Marathon, and Boquillas) ; southern Coahuila (Saltillo and DiamantePass) ; and Hidalgo (Portezuelo). South to Hidalgo (Portezuelo)
;
southwestern Texas (Lajitas, Chisos Mountains, and Fort Hancock)northern Chihuahua (Colonia Diaz) ; and northern Sonora (Guay-mas). West to northwestern Sonora (Guaymas, Rancho Costa Rica,and Kino Bay) ; northeastern Baja California (El Valle de la Trini-dad, west side of the Laguna Salada, and Gardners Laguna) ; andcentral southern California (Alamorio, Martinez, and Palm Springs)
.
The entire species as outlined has been divided into three subspeciesor geographic races. The crissal thrasher {T. d. dorsale) occupies therange in the United States and northern Mexico from Chihuahua toextreme northeastern Baja California; the Trinidad thrasher {T. d.trinitatis) occurs in El Valle de la Trinidad between the Sierra Juarezand the Sierra San Pedro Martir ; another race occurs in Mexico.Egg dates.?^Arizona : 88 records, February 18 to July 3 ; 44 records,April 2 to May 21, indicating the height of the season.California : 56 records, February 10 to June 10 ; 28 records, March11 to April 6.Baja California : 6 records. May 8 to June 10.TOXOSTOMA DORSALE TRINITATIS GrinnellTRINIDAD THRASHERHABITSDr. Joseph Grinnell (1927a) described and named this thrasher,based on a series of six specimens collected by Chester C. Lamb in theTrinidad Valley in northwestern Baja California. He says that it issimilar to the crissal thrashers of California and Arizona, "but billlonger and distinctly more curved (as seen in lateral profile), andtone of coloration darker, more slaty. This latter qualification appliesto both upper and lower surfaces, and particularly to the wings andtail, which are between fuscous and fuscous-black (of Ridgway, 1912)
,
rather than near mummy brown. The bill, feet and claws also aver-age blacker."This subspecies evidently is isolated in a very restricted range, forhe says that it is known only from the vicinity of the type localityin the Trinidad Valley. "This is a rather extensive, east-west valleywhich separates the Sierra San Pedro Martir immediately on the south,from the Sierra Juarez on the north. The Trinidad Valley is thuspart of an intermountain pass, and through it many desert-side plantsand animals have gone more or less distance onto the Pacific side, and
SAGE THRASHER 427certain Pacific-side species have extended in the opposite direction."Its habits are probably similar to those of the northern race.The measurements of 17 eggs average 27.1 by 19.6 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 30.2 by 20.0, 25.2 by 20,2, and24.9 by 18.7 millimeters.OREOSCOPTES MONTANUS (Townsend)SAGE THRASHERPlATES 87-90HABITSThe above scientific name and the old common name, mountainmockingbird, are both misnomers, as this is not a mountain bird and isnot a mocker. But sage thrasher is a most appropriate name, for itdesignates the bird's habitat and its relationship to the true thrashers.It is the characteristic bird of the vast sagebrush plains, and its dis-tribution is limited almost entirely to the semiarid regions whereimmense areas are clothed with practically nothing but a wavingsea of pale, gray-green sage {Artemisia tridentata) . Only the greatsagehen, now rapidly disappearing, seems to show such partiality forthe sagebrush plains. Though confined mainly to the valleys andmesas, this thrasher extends its range in many places up intp the foot-hills, where the sage gives way to other bushes, junipers and mahoganywoods, up to 4,000 feet or even 6,000 feet at some places; this is asnear as it comes to being a mountain bird.The 1931 Check-list gives its range as north to southern BritishColumbia and central Montana. It has evidently extended its rangemore or less irregularly during the past ten years. We did not recordit in southern Saskatchewan in either 1905 ,or 1906, but Laurence B.Potter, of Eastend, of the same general region in which we worked, hassent me several notes on its occurrence there from 1933 to 1939. Hesays : "Sage thrashers made their first known appearance in this south-ern part of Saskatchewan during the long period of drought, latelyended, and the first specimen was secured in 1933. Rather unexpect-edly, it has continued to migrate north since the wet seasons have setin. The sage thrasher is generally associated with the hot, arid plains,and it seemed strange to find it singing lustily on a cold, wet morning,as on May 8, 1938." He wrote to me on September 23, 1934, that hisfriend Charles F. Holmes took a breeding male in 1933 and the nextyear shot a breeding female and found a nest with eggs. On June12, 1934, Fred Bard found a nest with a set of five eggs and took bothbirds ; later on he found two m.ore nesting pairs. The thrashers camethere quite early in May in 1938 and 1939. Whether this is to be apermanent extension of the breeding range remains to be seen.Courtship.?^The first mention of the courtship activities of the sage
428 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtlirasher is from the notebook of Robert Ridgway, dated April 9,1868, at Carson City, Nev. Dr. Elliott Coues (1878) quotes from itas follows : "The Sage Thrasher is now one of the most common birdsin this vicinity. To-day a great many were noticed among the brush-heaps in the city cemetery. Its manners during the pairing season arepeculiar. The males, as they flew before us, were observed to keepup a peculiar tremor or fluttering of the wings, warbling as they flew,and upon alighting (generally upon the fence or a bush), raised thewings over the back, with elbows together, quivering with joy asthey sang."Ralph Hoffmann (1927) gives this slightly different account of it:
"In April and May when the birds are mating, the male Thrashergives vent to his ardor, not by mounting in the air like many groundbirds, but by flying in a somewhat clownish zigzag low over the sage.At the end of this flight the bird lights with wings upraised and flut-ters them for an instant."Nesting.?Mr. Ridgway's notes contain the first description of thenest of this thrasher that I can find. The sagebushes in the cemeteryhad been pulled up and piled in a heap ; one of the nests was so wellhidden in one of these brush heaps that much of it had to be removedbefore the nest could be seen. Other nests were found in sagebusheson the open plain, but also well concealed.An early description of an interesting nest is given by Henry W.Henshaw (1875) :Its nest, a bulky and inartistic structure of coarse twigs, lined with grassesand fine rootlets, is sometimes placed in a sage shrub ; but more often the birdselects one of the higher bushes, which, armed with sharp, stiff thorns, servesas an admirably secure platform for the clumsy nest, and affords additionalsecurity from its winged and four-footed enemies. A nest, which I examinednear Fort Garland, was thus placed, and some 8 inches above it was a device,which, though it may have been the result of mere accident, certainly seemedto me to bear in the method of its construction, the evidences of design, and,if the supposition be true, would argue for the designers no small degree ofintelligence. This was a platform of twigs, so placed as to screen the settingbird from the rays of the almost tropical sun. The material of which it wascomposed was precisely similar to that used in the construction of the nest,and it had been made at about the same time.Mrs. Bailey (1928) says that, in New Mexico, the nest may be onthe ground or in low bushes, "especially sagebrush ; bulky, made largelyof coarse plant stems, twigs of sagebrush and greasewood, dry sageshreds and sage bark ; lined with fine rootlets and sometimes hair andfur."In southwestern Colorado, M. French Gilman (1907) found sixnests, four of which were in sage and two in greasewood bushes, all2 to 2^2 feet from the ground. One of these had "a distinct arch orplatform of dry twigs just above it." This was probably similar to
SAGE THRASHER 429that described by Henshaw. Dr. Jean M. Linsdale (1938) reportssome five nests found in Nevada ; two of these were in sagebrush, onein rabbitbrush, one in a greasewood, and one in a horsebrush ( Tetra-dymia) ; these were all very low nests, ranging from 5 inches to 2 feetabove ground, only one above 1 foot. There is a set of eggs in the F. W.Braund collection from New Mexico that came from a nest 2 feet upin a juniper. There are two sets in my collection that came from Utah
;
the nests were in greasewood bushes and were lined with sheep wooland horsehair.Eggs.?The usual set for the sage thrasher consists of four or fiveeggs ; six eggs are found occasionally and seven have been recorded byOilman (1907). The average shape is ovate, with variations towardshort-ovate or elongate-ovate. They are often quite glossy. Theyhave been said to resemble mockingbirds' eggs, but they can generallybe recognized by the deeper and richer colors. The ground color is adeep, rich blue, or greenish blue, sometimes almost as dark as catbirds'eggs and sometimes almost as pale as the darker shades of mocking-birds' eggs, "Nile blue" or "lumiere blue." They are boldly spottedwith large well-defined spots or small blotches, which are not confluentand are sometimes elongated. These markings are usually in thedarker shades of rich brown, or reddish brown, such as "chestnut" or
"chestnut-brown" ; but sometimes the markings are in paler shades, suchas "cinnamon-rufous" or "vinaceous-tawny" ; sometimes there are afew shell markings of "plumbeous."The measurements of 50 eggs in the United States National Museumaverage 24,8 by 18.0 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 29.5 by 19.3 and 22.6 by 17.3 millimeters.Young.?The period of incubation does not seem to have been de-termined for this species. Apparently both sexes incubate the eggs,for Dr. Walter P. Taylor (1912) says that "one of the birds frightenedfrom a nest proved to be a male, indicating that the male takes partin incubation." Probably two broods are sometimes raised in a season,but perhaps not regularly.Plumages.?Dr. Linsclale (1938) describes three small young as
"covered with tracts of blackish down." I have not seen any smallyoung, but Mr. Ridgway (1907) says that, in the juvenal plumage, theupper parts are "light grayish brown (decidedly browner than insummer adults) , the pileum, back, scapulars, and rump rather broadlystreaked with much darker grayish brown; streaks on under partsless sharply defined than in adults."The postnuptial molt of adults occurs in August and September andis complete. In fresh fall plumage, the upper parts are grayer thanin spring, the tertials are margined terminally with white, and theunderparts are washed with buff.Food.?The examination of 10 stomachs of the sage thrasher by
430 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUME. R. Kalmbach (1914) showed that, where the sagebrush areas ap-proach the borders of alfalfa fields, this bird makes itself useful bydestroying alfalfa weevils. In bulk, this weevil
?
formed about an eighth of the food and was present in 7 of the stomachs. Thebest work appeared to be done in June, when the insect was eaten at the rate of3 adults and 6 larvae per bird. One bird had eaten 3 adults and at least 34 larvae,which composed 44 percent of the stomach contents.Ground beetles were present in all but two of the stomachs examined andformed about 30 percent of the food in June and a lesser amount in April andJuly. These beetles and a trace of an ant formed the entire contents of onestomach. Darkling beetles of the genera Blapstinus and Eleodes also were fre-quently eaten, composing a fifth of the food. Hymenoptera, spiders, and cater-pillars were other important ingredients. The only vegetable food was a quantityof currants found in one stomach.Ira La Rivers (1941) gives the sage thrasher credit for being one ofthe three species that "fed most destructfully" on the Mormon cricket(AThobncs simplex). "Eggs as well as adults were consumed. Frommy observations, the thrasher played nearly as important a role inthe destruction of cricket egg-beds as did the more conspicuous West-ern Meadowlark. * * * The cricket, actually a long-horned grass-hopper, yearly causes damage in Elko, Eureka, Lander, and Humboldtcounties, Nevada, by destroying large quantities of range and fieldforage, crops, and garden stuffs." He found this thrasher feedingnot only on the migrating crickets, in company with mice and shrews,
"but also digging up crickets from partly-finished wasp burrows. Oneindividual was surprised in the act of eating a black wasp {Ohlorionlaeviventris) which had been left by a marauding shrew."Mrs. Bailey (1928) says that it also eats locusts, and gives one recordof 62 percent grasshoppers. In a considerable tract of gooseberrybrush, Dr. Taylor (1912) noted that "hundreds of sage thrashers, incompany with large numbers of Brewer sparrows, green-tailed tow-hees, and fox sparrows, were feeding on the berries."Mr. Dawson (1923) writes: "At the close of the season, or when theyoung are able to fly well, the birds, all absolutely silent now, resort innumbers to the hillside springs and brushy draws to feed on berries,
?
wild currants, wild gooseberries, and to lesser extent, service berries.This fondness for small fruit has betrayed the birds into conspicuousmischief in the case of isolated ranches and pioneer reclamation proj-ects. Almost devoid of fear, the birds troup into the gardens in lateJuly and August to strip the currant bushes or blackberries, and laterthe grapevines."Clarence Hamilton Kennedy (1911) reports serious damage to smallfruits and grapes on his ranch in the Yakima Valley, Wash.
:
During the latter half of May, families of Sage Thrashers drift down into theirrigated ranches and begin their season of fruit-eating with the black-cap raspber-ries, which are then beginning to ripen. * During the entire summer's
SAGE THRASHER 431
observation I have heard no call of any kind and on but two occasions duringthis period have I heard a short burst of song. Their shyness also leaves them.They become as approachable as Robins in an eastern dooryard. They will sitand without fear eat berries within a few feet of pickers.Immediately following the raspberries come the blackberries. Both are de-voured with equal readiness. Sour red berries are eaten as readily as the riperblack ones. The berries are eaten whole and because of their size many of thosepicked off fall to the ground and are lost. After the blackberry season there isa period of 2 or 3 weeks when no small fruits are ripe. During this time theThrashers stay about the ranches but content themselves with an insect diet.At the end of this interim, the latter part of July, the early grapes begin tocolor. At first they pass unnoticed but by the time one-half of the clustersare purple the Thrashers have commenced to peck them. Usually they breakthe skin and sip the juice but occasionally a grape is eaten whole. After thefeeding on grapes commences the vineyard is never free from Thrashers, whichfly up from tlie vines to near posts and silently watch any intruder. * * *On this ranch there are 140 vines of Campbell's Early. The actual loss inweight of grapes through bird damage was 25 percent, but the loss in profitswas not less than 50 percent because of the large item of labor in trimming dam-aged clusters, and the loss in fancy value through the unattractive appearanceof the trimmed bunches.Dr. George F. Knowlton writes to me : "During the past several yearsI have collected 24 sage thrashers in the Snowville area of Box ElderCounty, Utah. Examination of the stomach contents revealed 21to contain a total of 65 grasshoppers, 1 field cricket, and 1 snowy treecricket. One dragonfly was contained. Eighty-six Hemiptera in thestomachs included 54 adult and 13 nymphal false chinch bugs, 9 mirids,and 3 pentatomids. The 20 Homoptera included 7 beet leafhoppersand 8 psyllids. The 40 Coleoptera were made up of 5 alfalfa weevils,1 clover leaf weevil, 2 click beetles, and representatives of various otherfamilies. There also were contained 2 larval Lepidoptera, 7 Diptera,41 Hymenoptera of which 35 were ants, besides 2 spiders and 35 seeds,most of these being black-currant seeds. Many of the birds were takenalong a one-eighth-mile fencerow of black currants, very attractive tobirds of many species."Behavior.?The sage thrasher may have been called the mountainmockingbird, or the sage mockingbird, because it impressed some ofthe early observers with its resemblance to that famous songster insome of its mannerisms. It uses its tail in much the same manner asthe mocker, frequently raising it rapidly and then lowering it slowlywhile perched on a post or the top of a bush, moving its head nervouslyfrom side to side as it views the intruder. Again, while running onthe ground, the tail is held high and daintily as the mocking bird iswont to do ; its pose and flight are also suggestive of the relationship.But its terrestrial habits mark it as a thrasher, for it much prefers run-ning to flying; it runs on the ground much like a robin, when notfrightened ; when alarmed, it is apt to dash thrasherlike into a bushand escape by running away under cover, or by low flight close to the
432 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMground, disappearing among the bushes and perhaps showing itselfagain on some distant bushtop.On its breeding grounds it is rather shy and often difficult to ap-proach, but it is tame enough about the ranches and gardens, whereit comes in summer and fall in search of berries and grapes and whereit is fairly bold and fearless. Mr. Potter writes to me from Saskatche-wan : "The sage thrasher, according to the books, is a shy bird, but Ihave found it, like the brown thrasher, a mixture of shyness and bold-ne.ss, or rather confidence. In 1937 I watched a thrasher singing onthe top branch of a dead willow, about 10 feet from the ground. I stoleup by degrees in full view until I was hardly 20 feet away and stoodthere watching it for some time."Cottam, Williams, and Sooter (1942) timed the flight speed of thesage thrasher in Oregon and Utah by comparing it with the speed ofan automobile; their four records showed speeds of 22, 25, 28, and29 miles an hour.Voice.?To appreciate fully the song of the sage thrasher, the poetof the lonesome .sagebrush plain, one should visit him in his hauntsin the gray of early dawn, before the chilly mists of night have liftedfrom the sea of gray-green billows that clothe the mesa farther thanone can see in the still dim light of the coming day. As the veil liftswith the rising sun, the mists roll away, the shadowy bushes take defi-nite form, the vast plain is .spread out before us in all its soft colors,and, scarcely visible in the distance, a gray-brown bird mounts to thetop of a tall sage and pours out a flood of glorious music, a morninghymn of joy and thanksgiving for the coming warmth of day. It maynot be the finest bird song that we have ever heard, perhaps not equalto that of the mockingbird, or even that of some other thrashers, but inthe solitude of such drab .surroundings it is soul-filling, satisfying, andinspiring.In pure sweetness of tone the song is fully equal to that of the mock-ingbird ; it is full of melody and tenderness. It is suggestive of thesong of the solitaire, but is more like that of the brown thrasher, withthe frequent repetition of the phrases but without the pauses betweenthem. Like this thrasher, it sings from the top of some prominentperch, with head raised and tail hanging downward. But its song isreally its own and quite unique.Laurence B. Potter writes to me : "The song of the sage thrasher isof the highest quality and, like that of the European skylark, is utteredwithout break or periods, a.s the brown thrasher. I have timed thesong with my watch and have known it to continue 2i/2 minutes at astretch. The sage thrasher also sings in flight in the manner of thewestern meadowlark."Dr. Wetmore (1920) describes the song very well as follows: "Atits beginning the song is somewhat like that of a grosbeak. As the
SAGE THRASHER 433
notes wander on, to change and become more intricate, burring calls,that while harsh are not unmusical, creep in as an accompaniment toclearer whistled notes that are varied and pleasing. Low trills andchanging combinations mark the song, reminding one of the im-provisation of some gifted musician who, playing apparently at ran-dom, brings forth tones that follow one another in perfect harmony."Ralph Hoffmann (1927) says: "Its song, given from the top of thesage or from a fence post along the road, is a long succession of warblingphrases with very little range of pitch and with constant repetitionof one accented note. The bird's alarm note is a chuch^ chuck suggest-ing a blackbird, and a sweet high toheurr.''^Field marks.?Though there is a fancied, superficial resemblanceto the mockingbird in behavior, the illusion is soon dispelled whenthe bird takes to the air, for the conspicuous white areas in the wingsof the mocker are lacking in the thrasher. The sage thrasher can berecognized as a plain brownish gray bird above, with a darker tailtipped with white on the outer feathers, with a short, straight bill,and with a breast distinctly streaked with black. None of the otherthrashers need be confused with it.Fall.?The sage thrasher is a decidedly migratory species, retiringin fall from nearly all its breeding range and spending the winternear or beyond the southern boundary of the United States. Its mi-gration is well marked and its numbers are sometimes impressive.Harry S. Swarth (1924) gives a good illustration of this, as observedin Arizona. The birds were "first seen September 11 ; a few days laterthis became the most abundant bird species in the piiion-juniper belt.The Sage Thrashers were obviously migrating, and some days all thebirds seen would be rapidly moving southward, an advancing armyreally impressive in numbers. Scores were in sight at once on theground, running from bush to bush, others were taking short flightsthrough the trees, and still others were in scattered companies over-head, almost like flocks of bluebirds in flight. The usual call-noteis a harsh chwck^ suggestive of that of a blackbird, but some thrash-ers were heard giving fragments of their striking song from perchesin the junipers."By the middle of October the number of Sage Thrashers hadmarkedly diminished. On the 20th none were seen, but on the 23dtwo appeared, the last observed."DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Central southern British Columbia to northern Mexico.Breeding range.?The sage thrasher breeds north to central south-ern British Columbia (Keremeos, Similkameen Valley, and the Okana-gan Valley as far north as Okanagan Landing) ; central Idaho (June-
434 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtion) ; southern Montana (Hillside, Fort Custer, and Miles City)
;
and southwestern Saskatchewan (Eastend). East to southeasternSaskatchewan (Eastend) ; eastern Montana (Miles City and TongueRiver) ; eastern Wyoming (Midwest, Douglas, and Laramie) ; north-western Nebraska, possibly (Sioux County) ; Colorado east to thePlains (Loveland, Golden, and Fort Garland) ; and extreme westernOklahoma (the Black Mesa region of Cimarron County). South towestern Oklahoma (Cimarron County) ; northern New Mexico (SantaFe, Albuquerque, and Mount Taylor) ; northern Arizona (Navajo,Apache County, and Fredonia) ; southern Nevada (Charleston Moun-tains) ; and southern California (San Bernardino and LockwoodValley) . West to California, southern and eastern parts of the State(Lockwood Valley, Bakersfield, Inyo Mountains, Mono Lake, EagleLake, and McDoel, Siskiyou County) ; Oregon, east of the Cascades(Spring Lake, Fort Klamath, and John Day River Valley) ; centralWashington (Kiona, Yakima, and Ellensburg) ; and southern BritishColumbia (Keremeos).Winter range.?In winter the sage thrasher is found north to south-ern California (San Fernando, Twenty-nine Palms, sometimes toCoalinga, Fresno County, and Death Valley) ; southern Arizona(Sascaton and Tucson); southern New Mexico (Silver City andMesilla) ; and southern Texas (El Paso, Fort Clark, and Kerrville).East to Texas (Kerrville, Uvalde, Laredo, and rarely Brownsville)and northern Tamaulipas (Nuevo Laredo and Camargo). South toTamaulipas (Camargo) ; northern Chihuahua (Colonia Diaz andChihuahua) ; northern Sonora (El Doctor, Sonoyta, and Punta Penas-cosa) ; and Baja California (Cape San Lucas). West to Baja Cali-fornia (Cape San Lucas, the Pacific coast, and occasionally Guada-lupe Island), and California (San Diego and San Fernando).Migration.?Late dates of spring departure are: Chihuahua
?
Palomas Lakes, April 7. Texas?Somerset, April 12. ArizonaTucson, April 7.Some early dates of spring arrival are : Texas?Somerset, February10. New Mexico?Silver City, March 22. Arizona?Williams, March31. Colorado?Walden, March 10. Utah?St. George, April 13.Wyoming?Laramie, March 27. Idaho?Rupert, March 31. Mon-tana?Billings, May 1. Oregon?^Klamath Lake, April 6. Washing-ton?Yakima, April 10. Saskatchewan?Eastend, May 2.Some late dates of fall departure are: Saskatchewan?Eastend,August 18. Washington?Yakima, September 15. Idaho?Meridian,September 21. Wyoming?Douglas, October 3. Colorado?^FortMorgan, October 4. New Mexico?Zuni, November 26.Some early dates of fall arrival are : Arizona?Fort Verde, August29. New Mexico?Carlsbad, August 6. Chihuahua?Chihuahua, Oc-tober 5.
SAGE THRASHER 435Casual records.?On June 4, 1940, at Gleeson, Cochise County,Ariz., a bird still in juvenile plumage was collected; this is more than250 miles south of the southernmost known breeding record for theState. A sage thrasher was recorded at Portland, Oreg., on August12, 1924. There are two sight records for North Dakota: one atMedora on June 16, 1918, and one on April 24, 1930, in WoodburyTownship, Stutsman County. A specimen was collected July 29, 1913,in Buffalo Valley, southwest Stanley County, S. Dak. One specimenwas collected and four other birds seen on January 2, 1926, in CameronParish, La., only about 100 yards from the coast. On April 12, 1942, aspecimen was collected near Braddock Bay, Monroe County, N. Y.Egg dates.?California : 24 records, April 19 to July 18 ; 12 records,April 19 to May 19 ; 9 records, June 4 to 25.Utah: 44 records, April 30 to June 11; 22 records, May 13 to 31,indicating the height of the season.Washington : 22 records, April 14 to May 20 ; 11 records, April 24to May 9.

ILLUSTRATIONS

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 1
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 2
Taunton, Mass., June 4, 1941.YOUNG White-breasted Nuthatches. ( M. . ,\ r.t-nt
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 3ULLETIN 195 PLATE 3
Ithaca. N. Y. A. A. Allen.Iiilimidation display
Harford County, Md., May 14, 1899, W . H. KisherNest and eggs.White-breasted Nuthatch.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 4
Toronto, Ontario. H. M. Halliday.
Ottawa County, Mi...., J B. W. Baker.White-breasted Nuthatches.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 5
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 6
Du I I I \, I I '- S. A. CrimesNesting site indicated by arrows.
S. A. Grimes.Adult eluding VDLing.Florida nuthatches.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 7
Ashland, Oreg., May 10, 1920.NEST AND Eggs of slender-billed Nuthatch. J. h. Patterson.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 9
C. Macnamara.NEST SITE OF RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH.
U S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 10
N'car Arnprior, Ontario. C. Macnamara.Red-breasted nuthatch at Nest.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 11
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 12
Duva -County, Fla., April 1937. S. A. Grimes.
Duval County, Fla., April 1933.Adult and Nest of Brown-headed Nuthatch. S. \. Grimes.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 13
fe -"l^,.
U S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 14
;:J|i?:^^ .. - ^sapSQiKv,
^.- "C"-
MlgaT^'
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 15
NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 16
Courtesy Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist.Nest found by R. J. Niedrach in Colorado.Rocky Mountain Creeper.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 17
U. S. NATION/VI MlicpUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 18
Jackson County, Oreg., May 5, 1920. J. E. Patterson.NEST OF SIERRA CREEPER
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 19
Berkeley, Calif., May 0, 1931. Roosting bush of male. Marv M. Erickson.
Berkeley, Calif., .August 4, 19J3. Mary M. Erickson.Courtesy of Mus. Vert. Zoology.NESTING OF GAMBEL'S WREN-TIT.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 20
Azusa, Calif., October 6, 1936. R. S. Woods.Pallid Wren-tit.
Berkeley, Calif \! ,!, M. Krickson.Cuuriesy Mus. \ ltI. Zoulugy.Gambels Wren-tits.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 21
Sauta Clara Count Gambel's Wren-tits
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 22
Logan Canyon, Ut
U. S. NATIONAL. MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 23
Jenny Creek, Ureg., April 1 '2 NEST AND Eggs of Dipper.
U. S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 24
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 25
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 26
Henncpi Mini, , June 28, 1941. A. D. DuBois.NATURAL Nest Site of Eastern House Wren.
U. S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 19'S PLATE 27
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 28
Coeur d'Alenc, Kl H. J. Rust.
J. E. Patterson.WESTERN HOUSE WRENS.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 29
Kingsu.n. R. 1., May 24. IVOS. Nest in upturned roots.
Near Ithaca, N. Y. A. A. Allen.Nest in fallen log.NESTS OF EASTERN WINTER WREN.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 30
Branchport, N. Y., May 28, 191S.NESTING SITES OF EASTERN WINTER WREN.
U. S, NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 31
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 32
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 33
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 34
Hocking County, Ohio. E. S. Thomas.BEWICKS WREN.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 35
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 36
A,^i,
U. S- NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 37
Duval County, Fla., June 1931. S. A. Grinnes.
Arkansa L.i , K r, , ]?' HI W alter Colvin.Nests of Carolina Wren.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 38
Nest in an old stove.Carolina Wren.
Brownsville, Tex., May 5, I'Jl-i Herbert Friedinann.Nest of Lomita Wren
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 39
Cochise County, Ariz.. April 24, 1922.NESTS OF Northern Cactus Wrens. A. C Bent.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN igf) PLATE 40
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 41
Near Claremont, Calif., April 17, 1916. V\ . M. Pierce.
Near Claremont, Calif., .April 1. 1916. W. M. Pierce.Nest and Young of Northern Cactus Wren.
II '^ NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 42
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 43
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 44
Duval County, Fla., June 9, 1934. S. A. Grimes.NESTING OF WORTHINGTONS MARSH WREN.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 45
NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 46
Buckeye Lake, Ohio. E. S. Thomas.PRAIRIE Marsh Wren.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 47
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 48
Nesting meadow.
Canton, Mass., June 17, 1903. .\. C. Bern.Well-concealed nest.Nesting of Short-billed marsh Wren.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 491|
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 50
-^k
U. S. NATIONAL. MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 51
lllln. Eliot Porter.Short-billed Marsh Wren.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 52
Catalina Mountains, Ariz., April 18, 1922. \. C. Bent.Nesting cave.
F. C. Willard.Nesl and young.Canyon Wrens.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 53
Southern California. W . L. & Irene Finley.Fledged young.
Sam,, el.n,, C" ur.ty, Calif. Gayle Pickwell.Adult and nest.Canyon Wrens.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 54
/' \
* * ' ? *lluadiuea M-unijiii., An/,. April H. V'2> A. C. Bent.
Tombstone, Ariz , April 2^ I ''
.Note stone pavings.Nesting Holes of Common Rock Wren.
U, S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 55
Inv C uul^ t lilt . \pril 4, l'*26 O. \\ . Howard al nesting site.
F. C. Willard.
,.\ca^ aU'^1 iu'.>l
.
Nesting of Common Rock WREr
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 56
Duval County, Fla., April 16, 1933. S. A. Gr
Duval County, Kla., April 1935. S. A. Grimes.Nests of Eastern Mockingbird.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 57
Manywings. Fla. A. I). Cruickshank.
St. Cloud, Fla A. A. Allen.Eastern Mockingbirds.
BULLETIN 195 PLATE 58
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 59
Stanislaus County, Calif.. April 18, 193(..NEST OF WESTERN MOCKINGBIRD. J. E. Patterson.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 60
Aziisa. Calif., February 26, 1933. R. S. Woods.
Azusa, Calif., Septenibcr 27, 1923. Eating Opuntia fruit.Western Mockingbirds. R. S. Woods.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 61
Warwick, R 1., June 2, law. H. S. Hathaway.
Wyoming County. N. Y., June 1928. S. .\. Grimes.NESTS OF CATBIRDS.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 62
White Plains, N. Y. A. D. Cruickshank.
Ht-nii'-piri L'iiinty, Minn., Ml- 2^. l''vS \. I), DuBois.
U^ S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 63
Taunton, Mass., May 31, 1941. Liri^c i. Once.Catbird Incubating.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 64
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 65
Catbird. D. Cruickshank.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 66
Hen,u-pne...n,>,Mn,n.. ArnllW
Ki,>.\L.miit>, lU., Mu) 24, 1V38.GROUND NESTS OF BROWN THRASHER. \1 lluUand.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 67
U. S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 68
Oyster Bay, Long Island, N. Y., January 1942.BROWN THRASHER IN WINTER. R. T. Peierson.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 69
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 70
A. D. Cruickshank.Brown Thrasher.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 71
Pima County, Ariz., May 24, 1V22.NESTING SITE OF BENDIRES THRASHER. A. C. Bent.
Brownsville, Tex., May 17, 1924.Nest of Sennetts Thrasher. Herbert p'riedmann.
^U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 72
Arizona. W. L. & Irene Finley.Nest of Bendire's Thrasher.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 73
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 74
Pima County, Ariz., May 24, 19, A. C. Bent.
Ariz., May 23, 1922.Nesting of palmers Thrasher. A. C. Bent.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 75
Arizona. W. L. & Irene Finley.NEST OF PALMER'S THRASHER.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 76
W lUard.
Tucson, Ari^. NEST AND Young of Palmer's Thrasher.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 77
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 78
J. E. Patterson.
Azusa, Calif., May 4, 1922. R. S. Woods.NESTS OF California Thrasher.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 79
Near Claremont, Calif., May 24, 1913.NEST OF CALIFORNIA THRASHER. W . M. Pierce.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 80
Aziisa, Calif., Seftember 15. 19.(2. R. S. Woods.
Los Angeles, Calif. Loye Miller.California Thrashers.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 81
Mojave Desert, Calif., March 11, 1929. A. C. Bent.
Mojave Desert, Calif., April 17, 1929.The author chopping out a nest.Nesting sites of LeContes Thrasher.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 82
W . M. Pierce.
Mojave Desert, Calif. VV. M. Pierce.YOUNG AND NEST OF LECONTE'S THRASHER.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 83
Note padded Uuiiig.NEST OF LECONTE'S THRASHER.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 84
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 85
Cochise C'iuntv, Anz., June 1, 1"'22. A. C. Bent
Arizona. NESTS OF CRISSAL THRASHER.
U S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 86
Arizona. \V. L. & Irene Finley.YOUNG Crissal Thrashers.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 87
"^N*
f/.. ^W" '> '
Calif., May 10, 1924.Nest of Sage Thrasher.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 88
^j^^^.;-'^i'Nest of sage Thrasher
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 195 PLATE 89
11 S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN iq'^ PLATE 90
LITERATURE CITEDAlcobn, Gokdon Dee. . .,1931. Does the tule wren egg or nestling form part of the diet of thegarter snake? Murrelet, vol. 12, p. 58.AtDRiCH, John Wakken. Tir^-f^/i Qtntpa1944. Geographic variation of Bewick wrens in the eastern United States.Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Louisiana State Univ., pp. 30&-309.Allakd, Habky Abdell.1930. Bill deformity in a catbird. Auk, vol. 47, p. 93.Allen, Amelia Sanbobn.1921. Food of western house wrens. Condor, vol. 2d, p. iw.Allen, Abthttr Augustus.1912. Phoebe vs. catbird. Bird-Lore, vol. 14, pp. 269-2741914. The red-winged blackbird: A study in the ecology ^^^^/f.^^^^^^T;Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New York, Nos. 24-2o, 1911-1913, pp. 43-128, pis. 1-22.1929. Nuthatch. Bird-Lore, vol. 31, pp. 423-432.Allen, Chables Slovee. ^ , , xt^^ vovv Ank1892. Breeding habits of the fish hawk on Plum Island, New Yoik. uk,vol. 9, pp. 313-321, pis. 4, 5.
^"5l2.ThrwW?b;easted and red-breasted B.tbatohes. Bird.I.,re, vol.14, pp. 316-319, 1 col. pi. AOOAQA1932. The song of the red-breasted nuthatch. Auk, vol. 49, pp. 482-4S4.Alley, Mrs. Jesse L. i iq ,^ or1939. Mockingbird fights coach-whip. Florida Nat., vol. 13, p. ^b.American Obnithologists' Union.1910. Check-list of North American birds. Ed. 3.1931 Check-list of North American Birds. Ed. 4. , ? .S ?weM,.tost supplement to the American 0-'*?l;f^^J^,-Check-list of North American Birds. Auk, vol. 63, pp. 42?-4rf^.ANDEESON, ANDEES HABOLD. 1 70 1741934a. Notes on the rock wren. Bird-Lore, vol. 36^ pp. 73-1741934b. A cactus wren roosting in a verdin's nest. Bird-Lore, vol. 36, p. 366.
^"""im'A^' unusual nest of the house wren. Wilson BuU.. vol. 46, p. 116.
^"' ISsTThe catbird of the West. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 12, p. 93.
"^lm'NrMrd?rm\ower California, Mexico. Proc. California Acad.Sci., ser. 2, vol. 2, pp. 73-82.1891 Notes on the cactus wren. Zoe, vol. 2, pp. 133-134. ^ oo8_im Birds of San Pedro Martir, Lower California. Zoe, vol. 4, pp. 228-2471894. Notes on the genus Heleodytes, with a description of a new sub-species. Auk, vol. 11, pp. 210-214, 437758066?48 29
438 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMAnthony, Alfeed Webstee?Continued1895a. A new species of Thryothorus from the Pacific coast. Aulv, vol.12, pp. 51-52.1895b. Birds of San Fernando, Lower California. Auk, vol. 12, pp. 134-143.1895c. A new subspecies of Harporhynchus from Lower California. Auk,vol. 12, pp. 52-53.1897. New birds from the islands and peninsula of Lower California. Auk,vol. 14, pp. 164-168.1901. The Guadalupe wren. Condor, vol. 3, p. 73.Abnold, Clabence M.1908. A brown creeper's mistake. Bird-Lore, vol. 10, p. 81.Abnold, William W.1906. Western hou.se wren's nest. Bird-Lore, vol. 8, pp. 172-173.Atwateb, Haery Philemon.1887. Nesting habits of Texas birds. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 12,pp. 103-105.Audubon, John James.1841a. The birds of America, vol. 2.1841b. The birds of America, vol. 3.AvEBiLL, Chables Ketchum, Jr.1888. Feeding habits of Sitta canadensis. Auk, vol. 5, p. 118.Ayee, Mrs. Nathan Edward.1937. DifBculties of a cactus wren family. News from the Bird Banders,vol. 12, p. 31.Bago, Aaeon Claek, and Eliot, Samuel Atkins, Jr.1937. Birds of the Connecticut Valley in Massachusetts.Bailey, Flobence Meeeiam.1902. Handbook of birds of the western United States.1922. Cactus wrens' nests in southern Arizona. Condor, vol. 24, pp. 163-168.1923. Birds recorded from the Santa Rita Mountains in southern Arizona.Pacific Coast Avifauna, No. 15.1928. Birds of New Mexico.Bailey, Habold Habris.1925. The birds of Florida.Baied, Spenceb Fttlleeton.1858. Reports of explorations and surveys to ascertain the most practicableand economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River tothe Pacific Ocean, part 2. Birds. Vol. 9.1864. Review of American birds, in the museum of the Smithsonian Institu-tion, pt. 1. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., No. 181.Baibd, S. F. ; Beeweb, Thomas Mayo ; and Ridgway, Robeet.1874. A history of North American birds. Land birds, vol. 1.Baldwin, Penelope.1929. Whispered bird songs. Bird-Lore, vol. 31, p. 112.Baldwin, Samuel Pbentiss.1921. Recent returns from trapping and banding birds. Auk, vol. 38, pp.228-244.1922. Adventures in bird banding. Auk, vol. 39, pp. 210-224, pis. 8, 9.Baldwin, S. Peentiss, and Bowen, Wilfrid Wedgwood.1928. Nesting and local distribution of the house wren (Troglodytes aedonaedon). Auk, vol. 45, pp. 186-199.Baldwin, S. Prentiss, and Kendeigh, Samuel Chables.1927. Attentiveness and inattentiveness in the nesting behavior of the housewren. Auk, vol. 44, pp. 206-216, pis. 10-13.
LITERATURE CITED 439Ball, Wilmam Howard,1927. The catbird {Dumetella carolinensis) at Washington, D. C, in winter.Auk, vol. 44, p. 256.Banceoft, Griffing.1930. The breeding birds of central Lower California. Condor, vol. 32, pp.20-^9, figs. 10-20.Bangs, Outeam.1898. Some new races of birds from eastern North America. Auk, vol. 15,pp. 173-183.1902, A new long-billed marsh wren from eastern North America. Auk, vol.19, pp, 349-553,Bangs, Outram, and Bradlee. Thomas Stevenson,1901. The resident land birds of Bermuda, Auk, vol. 18, pp. 249-257.Barrows, Walter Bradford.1912. Michigan bird life.Batchelder, Charles Fosteir.1885. Winter notes from New Mexico. Auk, vol. 2, pp. 233-239,Bates, Clara,1940. Florida's State bird : Most familiar and best loved of all [mockingbird].Florida Game and Fish, vol. 1, No. 5, pp, 10-11,Battell, Harrihtp Chapman (Mrs, F. L. Battell),1925, A bit of evidence, Bird-Lore, vol, 27, p. 242.1941. Albino catbirds and a robin roost. Iowa Bird Life, vol. 11, No, 1, p, 13.Batliss, Clara Kern,1917, A remarkable case of bird-feeding. Auk, vol. 34, pp. 90, 91.Beal, Foster Ellenborough Lascelles.1897, Some common birds in their relation to agriculture, U. S. Dept. Agr.Farmers' Bull, 54,1907. Birds of California in relation to the fruit industry, U, S, Dept, Agr,Biol, Surv, Bull. 30.1918, Some common birds useful to the farmer, U. S. Dept, Agr. Farmers'Bull, 630, rev, ed,Beial, F, E, L. ; McAtee, Waldo Lee ; and Kalmbach, Edwin Richard,1916. Common birds of Southeastern United States in relation to agriculture.U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 755.Beckham, Charles Wickliffe.1887, Additions to the avi-fauna of Bayou Sara, La, Auk, vol, 4, pp, 299-306.Beebe, Charlesi William.1905, Two bird-lovers in Mexico,Benners, George Bartleson,1887, A collecting trip in Texas. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 12, pp. 49-52.BicKNELL, Eugene Pintard,1884, A study of the singing of our birds. Auk, vol. 1, pp. 126-140,Bishop, Lotjis Bennett,1904, The eggs and breeding habits of some comparatively little known NorthAmerican birds. Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New York, Nos. 15, 16, pp.48-61.Black, John David.1929. A catbird bush. Oologist, vol. 46, p. 96.Blake, Emmet Reid.1942. Mexican dipper in the Huachuca Mountains, Arizona. Auk, vol. 59,pp. 578-579.Blake, Sidney Fat.1928. Field notes on certain California birds. Condor, vol. 30, pp. 249-250.
440 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBoGGS, Marion Alkxandeb.1935. Some age-records of catbirds, brown thrashers, red-eyed towhees, white-throated sparrows, and song sparrows. Bird-Banding, vol. 6, pp.134-135.1939. Some age-records of the brown-thrasher, eastern song sparrow andindigo bunting, at Waynesville, North Carolina. Bird-Banding, vol.10, p. 42.BoLLES, Frank.1891. Land of the lingering snow.Bond, Richard Marshall.1940. Sleeping posture of the rock wren. Condor, vol. 42, p. 122.BOXTLTON, [WOLFRID] RUDYERD, [Jr.].1927. Ptilosis of the house wren (Troglodytes aedon aedon). Auk, vol. 44,pp. 387-414, 12 figs.Bowles, Charles Wilson.1898. Duplicate nests. Osprey, vol. 3, p. 46.Bowles, John Hooper.1899. Decoy nests of the western winter wren. Bull. Cooper Orn. Club, vol.1, p. 72.1908. The tawny creeper in western Washington. Condor, vol. 10, pp. 27-29.1922. The bird trapper of the twentieth century. Murrelet, vol. 3, No. 1,pp. 9-12, figs. 1-3.Brackbill, Hervey.1942. Catbird wintering in Maryland. Auk, vol. 59, pp. 112-113.Bradbury, William Chase.1919. Nesting notes in the Rocky Mountain creeper. Condor, vol. 21, pp.49-52, figs. 12-15.Brand, Albert Rich.1935. A method for the intensive study of bird song. Auk, vol. 52, pp. 40-52.1938. Vibration frequencies of passerine bird song. Auk, vol. 55, pp. 263-268.Brandt, Herbert.1945. A new wren from Arizona. Auk, vol. 62, pp. 574-577.Breckenbidge, Walter John.1935. An ecological study of some Minnesota marsh hawks. Condor, vol. 37,pp. 268-276, figs. 51-53.Brewer, Thomas Mayo.1879. The American brown creeper. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 4, pp. 87-90.Brewster, William.1879. Breeding habits of the American brown creeper (Certhia familiarisamericana). Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 4, pp. 199-209.1882a. On a collection of birds lately made by Mr. F. Stephens in Arizona.Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 7, pp. 65-86.1882b. Impressions of some southern birds. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol, 7,pp. 94-104.1886. An ornithological reconnaissance in western North Carolina. Auk,vol. 3, pp. 173-179.1891. Descriptions of seven supposed new North American birds. Auk, vol.8, pp. 139-149.1893. Description of a new marsh wren, with critical notes on Cistothorusmarianne Scott Auk, vol. 10, pp. 215-219.1902. Birds of the Cape region of Lower California. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.,vol. 41, pp. 1-241, 1 map.
LITERATURE CITED 441Bbewsteb, Wilmam?Continued1906. The birds of the Cambridge region of Massachusetts. Mem. NuttallOrn. Club, No. 4.1936. October Farm.1938. The birds of the Lake Umbagog region of Maine, pt. 4. Bull. Mus,Comp. Zool., vol. 66. Compiled by Ludlow Griscom.Beidge, Lidian Emeeson.1911. The story of two house wrens. Bird-Lore, vol. 13, pp. 141-142.Bbooks, Eabl.1922. Cardinal and catbird. Bird-Lore, vol. 24, pp. 343-344.Bbooks, Maxjbice.1932. Carolina wrens roosting in abandoned hornets' nests. Auk, vol. 49,pp. 223-224.1936. Winter killing of Carolina wrens. Auk, vol. 53, p. 449.Bbown, Hebbebt.1892. The habits and nesting of Palmer's thrasher. Zoe, vol. 3, pp. 243-248.1901. Bendire's thrasher. Auk, vol. 18, pp. 225-231.Beown, Nathan Cliffobd.1878. A list of birds observed at Coosada, central Alabama. Bull. NuttallOrn. Club, vol. 3, pp. 168-174.Beyant, Walteb (PrEBO)E.1887. Additions to the ornithology of Guadalupe Island. Bull. CaliforniaAcad. Sci., vol. 2, pp. 269-318.1888. Unusual nesting sites. II. Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 2, vol. 1,pp. 7-10.BuBK, Walteb L.1938. Brown thrasher evicts catbird. Iowa Bird Life, vol. 8, p. 55.BUELEIGH, Thomas Dearborn,1921. Breeding birds of Warland, Lincoln Co., Montana. Auk, vol. 38,pp. 552-565.1927. Notes from La Anna, Pike County, Pennsylvania. Wilson Bull., vol. 39,pp. 159-168.1930. Notes on the bird life of northwestern Washington. Auk, vol. 47,pp. 48-63.1931. Notes on the breeding birds of State College, Center County, Penn-sylvania. Wilson Bull., vol. 43, pp. 37-54.1935. Two new birds from the southern Appalachians. Proc. Biol. Soc.Washington, vol. 48, pp. 61-62.1941. Bird life on Mt. Mitchell. Auk, vol. 58, pp. 334-345.BxmLEiGH, T. D., and Loweby, George Hines, Jr.1940. Birds of the Guadalupe Mountain region of western Texas. Occ.Pap. Mus. Zool. Louisiana State Univ., No. 8.BuBNS, Franklin Loeenzo.1915. Comparative periods of deposition and incubation of some NorthAmerican birds. Wilson Bull., vol. 27, pp. 275-286.1921, Comparative periods of nestling life of some North American Nidl-colae. Wilson Bull., vol. 33, pp. 90-99.Burroughs, John.1895. Birds and poets with other papers.BuTLEE, Amos Wii.liam.1898. The birds of Indiana. Indiana Dept. Geol. and Nat. Kes., 22d Ann.Kep., 1897, pp. 515-1197, pis. 21-25.
442 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
RxTTTs, Wilbur Kingsley.1927. The feeding range of certain birds. Auk, vol. 44, pp. 329-350.1931. A study of the chickadee and white-breasted nuthatch by means ofmarked individuals. Part 3: The white-breasted nuthatch (Sittacarolinensis cookei). Bird-Banding, vol. 2, pp. 59-76, 1 map.Calhoun, Clara.1911. Carolina wrens in a blacksmith shop. Bird-Lore, vol. 13, p. 142.Cameron, Ewen Somerled.1908. The birds of Custer and Dawson Counties, Montana. Auk, vol. 25,pp. 39-56.Catesby, Mark.1731. The natural history of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Is-lands . . ., vol. 1.Chace, Leda W.1931. Catbird robs robin's nest. Oologist, vol. 48, p. 102.Chadbourne, Arthur Patterson.1905. Nesting liabits of the brown creeper as observed in Plymouth County,Massachusetts, with description of a nest from North Scituate. Auk,vol. 22, pp. 179-183, pis. 6-9.Chapman, Frank Michlee.1900. Bird studies with a camera. With introductory chapters on the out-fit and methods of the bird photographer.1912. Handbook of birds of eastern North America, rev. ed.1916. Notes on the plumage of North American birds. Bird-Lore, vol. 18,p. 172.1925. [Editorial on the house wren.] Bird-Lore, vol. 27, p. 203.Christy, Bayard Henderson.1924. Bewick's wren in Allegheny County [Pa.]. Cardinal, vol. 1, No. 3, pp.12-15.Clark, Austin Hobart.1945. Animal life of the Aleutian Islands. In Collins, Clark, and Walker,"The Aleutian Islands : Their People and Natural History," Smith-sonian Inst. War Background Studies No. 21, pp. 31-61.Clark, Josiah Huntoon.1898. Notes on the nesting of Palmer's thrasher at El Plomo, Sonora, Mexico.Auk, vol. 15, pp. 272-274.1899. Nest of long-billed marsh wren lined with a snake skin. Auk, vol. 16,p. 281.1904. Curve-billed and Palmer's thrashers. Auk, vol. 21, pp. 214-217.Clarke, Charles J.1915. Jonah, the catbird. Bird-Lore, vol. 17, p. 382.Cole, Leon Jacob,1905. The occurrence of Bewick's wren, Thryomanes 1}euncku (Aud.) atGrand Rapids. Bull. Michigan Orn. Club, vol. 6, pp. 8-10.1930. The laying cycle in the house wren. Wilson Bull., vol. 42, p. 78.COLTON, Will N.1889. An unusual nesting site; peculiar eggs. Oologist, vol. 6, p. 9.Commons, Maeie Andrews.1930. In the garden with the bird bander. Bull. Garden Club America, ser.4, No. 8, pp. 16-21.Cook, Mrs. H. P.1929. Ti-anslating notes into words. Bird-Lore, vol. 31, pp. 257-259.CooKE, Wells Woodbridge.1884. Bird nomenclature of the Chippewa Indians. Auk, vol. 1, pp. 242-250
LITERATURE CITED 443CooPEB. James Gkaham.1876. Nesting habits of the California house wren {Troglodytes aedon var.parkmanni) . Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 1, pp. 79-81.CORDnSt, AI.BERT Hawes.1927. Some observations on the v^ater ouzel. Auk, vol. 44, pp. 169-178, pis. 6, 7.CoTTAM, Clarence, and Knappen, Phoebe.1939. Food of some uncommon North American birds. Auk, vol. 56, pp.138-169.CoTTAM, Clarence ; Williams, Cecil Sloan ; and Sooter, Clarence Andrew.1942. Flight and running speed of birds. Wilson Bull., vol. 54, pp. 121-131.CouEs, Elliott,1875. Ornithology of the Prybllov Islands. I7i A report upon the conditionof affairs in the Territory of Alaska, by Henry W. Elliott, pp. 168-212.1878. Birds of the Colorado Valley. U. S. Gaol. Surv. Terr. Misc. Publ. 11.1882. Nesting of the white-bellied wren (Tliryothorus bewicki leucogaster)
.
Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 7, pp. 52-53.OtTRRIER, EdMONDE SaMTJEL.1904. Summer birds of the Leech Lake region, Minnesota. Auk, vol. 21,pp. 29-44.Daley, Florence Kaiser (Mrs. Edwin Wood).1926. Bearing yoimg red-breasted nuthatches. Auk, vol. 43, pp. 528-531.Dawson, Willlam Leon.1903. The birds of Ohio.1910. Rouge et noir. Condor, vol. 12, pp. 167-170.1923. The birds of California, vols. 1-3.Dawson, W. L., and Bowles, John Hooper.1909. The birds of Washington. Vol. 1.Deane, Ruthven.1879. Additional cases of albinism and melanism in North American birds.Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 4, pp. 27-30.Deck, Raymond S.1928. A catbird family. Bird-Lore, vol. 30, pp. 101-105.Dice, Lee Raymond.1918. The birds of Walla Walla and Columbia Counties, southeastern Wash-ington. Auk, vol. 35, pp. 40-51.Dickey, Donald Ryder, and van Rossem, Adriaan Joseph.1938. The birds of El Salvador. Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., vol. 23.Dingle, Edward von Siebold, and Sprunt, Alexander, Jr.1932. A new marsh wren from North Carolina. Auk, vol. 49, pp. 454-455.Dixon, Edwin.1930. Catbird robs chipping sparrow. Oologist, vol. 47, p. 126.Doolittle, Edward Arthur.1923. The disposition of the catbird. Bird-Lore, vol. 25, p. 252.Drake, Mrs. Gilbert.1931. A queer wren's nest. Nature Mag., vol. 17, p. 212.Dresser, Robert.1892. Brief notes. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 17, p. 95.Dunn, Harry H.1902. Vigor's wren. Oologist, vol. 19, pp. 33-34.Dutcher, William.1906. Remarkable flight of red-breasted nuthatches. Bird-Lore, vol. 8, pp.209-210.
444 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDwiGHT, Jonathan, Jr.1900. The sequence of plumages and moults of the passerine birds of NewYork. Ann. New York Acad. Sci., vol. 13, pp. 73-360, pis. 1-7.Dter, Ernest I.1939. More observations on the nesting of the Allen hummingbird. CJondor,vol. 41, pp. 62-67.Eaton, Elon Howabd,1914. Birds of New York. New York State Mus. Mem. 12, pt. 2.Edson, Wilijam Lloyd Garrison, and Hoesey, Richard Edgar.1920. Rare or uncommon birds at Rochester, N. Y, Auk, vol. 37, pp. 140-142.Ehingeb, Clyde Ernst.1925. A winter wren's lodging house. Murrelet, vol. 6, pp. 37-39.1930. Some studies of the American dipper or water ouzel. Auk, vol. 47,pp. 487-498.Ekblaw, Sidney Evebetts.1918. A tame brown thrasher. Wilson Bull., vol. 30, p. 92.Engels, William Loins.1940. Structural adaptations in thrashers (Mimidae: genus roa?osfoma) withcomments on interspecific relationships. Univ. California PubLZool., vol. 42, pp. 341-400, 24 figs.Erickson, Mary Mabilla.1938. Territory, annual cycle, and numbers in a population of wren-tits(Chamaea fasciata). Univ. California Publ. Zool., vol. 42, pp. 247-334, 16 figs., pis. 9-14.Ebeington, Paul Lester.1935. Food habits of mid-west foxes. Journ. Mamm., vol. 16, pp. 192-200.Ebbington, p. L. : Hamebstbom, Francis ; and Hamebstbom, Fbedebick N., Jb.1941. The great horned owl and its prey in north-central states. Agr. Exp,Stat. Iowa State ColL Agr. Bull. 277, pp. 759-850.Ebwin, William Grady.1935. Some nesting habits of the brown thrasher. Journ. Tennessee Acad.Sci., vol. 10, pp. 179-204.Evans, Conboy.1918. A winter house wren. Bird-Lore, vol. 20, p. 159.Fisheb, Axbert Kenbick.1893. Hawks and owls of the United States, in their relation to agriculture.U. S. Dept. Agr. Biol. Surv. Bull. 3.Fobbes, Stephen Alfred.1883. The regulative action of birds upon insect oscillations. Bull. IllinoisState Lab. Nat. Hist, vol. 1, pp. 3-32.FoRBUSH, Edwaed Howe.1907. Useful birds and their protection.1916. Ninth annual report of the State ornithologist for the year 1916.1929. Birds of Massachusetts and other New England States, pt. 3. Landbirds from sparrows to thrushes.Fbiedmann, HnatBEET.1925. Notes on the birds observed in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texasduring May, 1924. Auk, vol. 42, pp. 537-554, pis. 25-29.1929. The cowbirds.1934. Further additions to the list of birds victimized by the cowbirds.Wilson Bull., vol. 46, pp. 25-36.1938. Additional hosts of the parasitic cowbirds. Auk, vol. 55, pp. 41-50.
LITERATURE CITED 445Gabeielsoit, Ira NoEt..1912. A study of the home life of the brown thrasher, Toxostoma rufum(Linn.). Wilson Bull., vol. 24, pp. 65-94, figs. 1-6.1913. Nest life of the catbird. Wilson BuU., vol. 25, pp. 166-187.Gandeb, Feank Foerest.1931. The mating of the western mockingbird. Wilson Bull., vol. 43, pp.223-224.GlONOrx, ClAOTE.1924. Nesting of pygmy nuthatches at Lake Tahoe. Condor, vol. 26, pp. 31-32.Gill, Geoffrey.1935. The constancy of catbirds to mates and to territory. Wilson Bull., vol.47, pp. 104-106.1936a. Further notes on the constancy of catbirds to mates and to territory.Wilson Bull., vol. 48, pp. 303-305.1936b. The concentration of catbirds at the close of the nesting season. Wil-son Bull., vol. 48, pp. 38-40.1940. An analysis of catbird returns over a ten year period. Bird-Banding,vol. 11, pp. 21-22.Gilman, Mabshall Feench.1902. The crissal thrasher in California. Condor, vol. 4, pp. 15-16.1904. The LeConte thrasher. Condor, vol. 6, pp. 95-98.1907. Migration and nesting of the sage thrasher. Condor, vol. 9, pp. 42-44.1909. Among the thrashers in Arizona. Condor, vol. 11, pp. 49-54.1915. A forty acre bird census at Sacaton, Arizona. Condor, vol. 17, pp.86-90.GODAED, A. H.1915. The house wren and dry sticks. Bird-Lore, vol. 17, pp. 211-212.Goelitz, Walteb Adolph.1918. A unique wren nest. Bird-Lore, vol. 20, p. 295.GOODPASTDBE, AlBEET V.1908. A mocking bird's June. Bird-Lore, vol. 10, pp. 201-204.Geimes, Samuel Andbew.1932. Notes on the 1931 nesting season in the Jacksonville region. FloridaNat., vol. 5, pp. 57-63.Gbinnell, Joseph.1900. The intermediate wren-tit. Condor, vol. 2, p. 86.1904. Midwinter birds at Palm Springs, California. Condor, vol. 6, p. 40-45.1907. Nesting of the Sierra creeper. Condor, vol. 9, p. 59.1908. The biota of the San Bernardino Mountains. Univ. California Publ.Zool., vol. 5, pp. 1-170, pis. 1-24.1910. Two heretofore unnamed wrens of the genus Thryomanes. Univ. Cali-fornia Publ. Zool., vol. 5, pp. 307-309.1913. Call-notes and mannerisms of the wren-tit. Condor, vol. 15 ,pp. 178-181.1914. An account of the mammals and birds of the lower Colorado Valley,with especial reference to the distributional problems presented.Univ. California Publ. Zool., vol. 12, pp. 51-294, 9 figs., pis. 3-13.1915. A distributional list of the birds of California. Pacific Coast Avifauna,No. 11.1917. The niche-relationships of the California thrasher. Auk, vol. 34, pp.427-433.1918. Seven new or noteworthy birds from east-central California. Condor,vol. 20, pp. 86-90, fig. 11.
446 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMGbinnexl, Joseph?Continued1926. A new race of the white-breasted nuthatch from Lower California.Univ. California Publ. Zool., vol 21, pp. 405-410, 1 fig.1927a. A new race of crissal thrasher, from northwestern Lower California.Condor, vol. 29, p. 127.1927b. Six new subspecies of birds from Lower California. Auk, vol. 44, pp67-72.1928. Notes on the systematics of west American bii'ds. II. Condor, vol.30, pp. 153-156.1933. The LeConte thrashers of the Jan Joaquin. Condor, vol. 35, pp. 107-114, fig. 21.Ghinnell, Joseph, and Behle, William Harrotjn.1935. Comments upon the subspecies of Cathcrpes mexicanus. Condor, vol.37, pp. 247-251, fig. 46.Geinnell, Joseph ; Dixon, Joseph ; and Linsdale, Jean Myron.1980. Vertebrate natural history of a section of northern California throughthe Lassen Peak region. Univ. California Publ. Zool., vol. 35, pp.1-594, 181 flgs.Geinnell, Joseph, and Linsdale, Jean Myron.1936. Vertebrate animals of Point Lobos Reserve, 1934-35. Carnegie Inst.Washington, Publ. No. 481.Gmnneix, Joseph, and Storeb, Tracy Irwin.1924. Animal life in the Yosemite. Contr. Mus. Vert. Zool., Univ. California.Geinnell, Joseph, and Swarth, Harry Schelwald.1926. New subspecies of birds (Penthestes, Baeolophus, Psaltriparus,Chamae) from the Pacific coast of North America. Univ. CaliforniaPubl. Zool., vol. 30, pp. 163-175, 2 figs.Hardy, Manly.1878. Nesting habits of the red-bellied nuthatch. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club,vol. 3, p. 196.Harlow, Richard Cbesson,1918. Notes on the breeding birds of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Auk,vol. 35, pp. 136-147.Harper, Francis.1926. A new marsh wren from Alberta. Occ. Pap. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,vol. 5, pp. 221-222.1929. Spring bird notes from Randolph County, Georgia. Wilson Bull., vol.41, pp. 235-240.Harrington, Axice Bowers.1923. Observations on the mockingbird at Dallas, Texas. Bird-Lore, vol. 25,pp. 310-312.Harris, Harry.1919. Birds of the Kansas City region. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, vol. 23,pp. 213-371.Harris, Lucien.1927. An unusual nest of the white-breasted nuthatch. Wilson Bull., vol.39, pp. 41-42.Hart, R. E.1941. Blitzed birdhouse. Nat. Hist., vol. 48, p. 256.Harvey, G. V.1902. The lodging of the white-breasted nuthatch in winter. Amer. Orn.vol. 2, pp. 170-171.
LITERATURE CITED 447Hathaway, Hakby Sedgwick.1911. A house wren driven from its nest by spiders. Wilson Bull., vol. 23,p. 128.1913. Notes on the occurrence and nesting of certain birds in Rhode Island.Auk, vol. 30, pp. 545-558.EIaywakd, W. J.1937. Incidents in bird behavior. Wilson Bull., vol. 49, p. 47.Heath, Haeold.1920. The nesting habits of the Alaska wren. Condor, vol. 22, pp. 49-55,figs. 7-9.Hegler, Marie Ellis.1923. The whistling catbird. Bird-Lore, vol. 25, pp. 252-253.Hempel, Kathleen M.1919. Notes on nesting bluebirds and house wrens. Bird-Lore, vol. 21, pp.173-174.Hendee, RUSSB2X William.1929. Note on birds observed in MofEat County, Colorado. Condor, vol. 31,pp. 24-32, figs. 9-11.Henderson, Grant.1931. Incompatibility of house and Carolina wrens. Wilson Bull., vol. 43,pp. 224-225.Henderson, Junius.1908. The American dipper in Colorado, Bird-Lore, vol. 10, pp. 1-7.1927. The practical value of birds.HJENSHALL, James Alexander.1901. American dipper. Amer. Orn., vol. 1, pp. 175-179.Henshaw, Henry Wethebbee.1875. Report upon the ornithological collections made in portions of Nevada,Utah, California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona during theyears 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874. Wheeler's Rep. Expl. Surv. West100th Merid.EteRMAN, William Cephas.1923. Dual nest of the robin and brown thrasher. Bird-Lore, vol. 25, pp.127-128.Hills, Victor Gardiner.1924. A house wren adopts a family of young black-headed grosbeaks (Den-ver, Colorado). Auk, vol. 41, pp. 615-616.Hoffman, Edward Carlton.1925. House wrens and arsenate-dusted currant bushes. Wilson Bull., vol.37, p. 224.Hoffmann, Ralph.1904. A guide to the birds of New England and eastern New York.1927. Birds of the Pacific States.Holt, Ernest Golsan, and Sutton, George Miksch.1926. Notes on birds observed in southern Florida. Ann. Carnegie Mus.,vol. 16, pp. 409-439, pis. 39-44.HOLTERHOFF, GODFREY, Jr.1881. A collector's notes on the breeding of a few western birds. Amer.Nat., vol. 15, pp. 208-219.1883. Nest and eggs of Leconte's thrasher iHarporJitjnchvs redivivus le-contii). Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 8, pp. 48-49.
448 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMHOWEIX, AXFKED BrAZIER.1917. Birds of the islands off the coast of southern California. PacificCoast Avifauna, No. 12.Howell, Arthur Holmes.1924. Birds of Alabama.1932. Florida bird life.Howell, A. H. and Oldys, Henet.1907. The Bewick wren in the District of Columbia, with a descriptionof its song. Auk, vol. 24, pp. 149-153.Huey, Laurence Markham.1927. Birds recorded in spring at San Felipe, northeastern Lower Cali-fornia, Mexico, with description of a new woodpecker from thatlocality. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 5, pp. 11-40.Hunt, Chreswell John.1904. That feathered midget of our tide-water swamps?the long-billedmarsh wren. Cassinia, No. 8, pp. 14-16.1907. A brown creeper's spiral flight. Wilson Bull., vol. 19, p. 31.HuNTEE, Lawrence E.1935. Some bird tragedies. Wilson Bull., vol. 47, pp. 74-75.Ingeaham, Sydney Eleanor (Mrs. Olin Ingraham).1938. Instinctive music. Auk, vol. 55, pp. 614-628, pis. 24, 25.ISELY, DWIGHT.1912. A list of the birds of Sedgwick County, Kansas. Auk, vol. 29, pp.25^4.Jones, Mrs. A. H.1930. Pygmy nuthatches and wrens. Bird-Lore, vol. 32, pp. 426-427.Jones, Lynds.1913. Some records of the feeding of nestlings. Wilson Bull., vol. 25, pp.67-71.JuDD, Sylvester Dwight.1895. Four common birds of the farm and garden. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbookfor 1895, pp. 405-418.1900. The food of nestling birds. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook for 1900, pp.411-436, figs. 48-56, pis. 49-53.Kalmbach, Edwin Richard.1914. Birds in relation to the alfalfa weevil. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 107.Kendeigh, Samuel Charles.1934. The role of environment in the life of birds. Ecol. Monogr., vol.4, pp. 299-417.1940. Factors affecting length of incubation. Auk, vol. 57, pp. 499-513.1941. Territorial and mating behavior of the house wren. Illinois Biol.Monogr., vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 1-120, figs. 1-32.Kendeigh, S. C, and Baldwin, Samuel Prentiss1928. Development of temperature control in nesting house wrens. Amer.Nat., vol. 62, pp. 24^278.Kennard, Frederic Hedge, and McKechnie, Frederic Beigham.1905. The breeding of the brown creeper in eastern Massachusetts. Auk,vol. 22, pp. 183-193, pis. 10-12.Kennedy, Clarence Hailton.1911. Notes on the fruit-eating habits of the sage thrasher in the Yakimavalley. Auk, vol. 28, pp. 225-228.King, Franklin Hiram.1883. Economic relations of Wisconsin birds. Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 1,pp. 441-610.
LITERATURE CITED 449Knappen, Phoebe.1933. Birds eating sawfly larvae. Auk, vol. 50, pp. 451-452.Knight, Oka Wiixis.1908. The birds of Maine.Knowlton, Geoege Feanklin, and Habmston, F. C.1943, Grasshoppers and crickets eaten by Utah birds. Auk, vol. 60, pp.589-591.Kopman, Heney Hazlitt.1915. List of the birds of Louisiana, pt. 7. Auk, vol. 32, pp. 183-194.Lacey, Howakd [George].1911. The birds of Kerrville, Texas, and vicinity. Auk, vol. 28, pp. 200-219.Langelle, JameS Hibbert.1884. Our birds in their haunts.La Rivers, Ira.1941. The Mormon cricket as food for birds. Condor, vol. 43, pp. 65-69.Laskey, Ameua RtTDOLPH (Mrs. F. C. Laskey).1936. Fall and winter behavior of mockingbirds. Wilson Bull., vol. 48, pp.241-255.Law, John Eugene.1928. Toxostoma curvirostris: 1. Description of a new subspecies from thelower Rio Grande. Condor, vol. 30, pp. 151-152.1929. Down-tree progress of Sitta piigmaea. Condor, vol. 31, pp. 45-51, figs.13-21.Lewis, Harbison Flint.1927. Destruction of birds by lighthouses in the provinces of Ontario andQuebec. Can. Field-Nat., vol. 41, pp. 75-77.Lincoln, Frederick Charles.1920. A peculiarly marked example of Dumetella caroUnensis. Auk, vol. 37,p. 593.1939. Migration of American birds.LiNSDALE, Jean Myron.1938. Environmental responses of vertebrates in the Great Basin. Amer.Midi. Nat., vol. 19, pp. 1-206.Lloyd, J. William.1914. The whisper song of the catbird. Bird-Lore, vol. 16, pp. 446-447.Lofberg, Lila McKinley.1931. "Office aids" in nest building. Condor, vol. 33, pp. 245-246.LowERY, George Hines, Jr.1940. Geographical variation in the Carolina wren. Auk, vol. 57, pp. 95-104.Macoubeie, Jennie K.1932. A useful bird. Bird-Lore, vol. 34, p. 390.Macoun, John, and Macoun, James M.1900. Catalogue of Canadian birds.Mailliard, Joseph.1902. Wren-tit building in a tree. Condor, vol. 4, p. 95,Marshall, Joe T., Jr.1942. Food and habitat of the spotted owl. Condor, vol. 44, pp. 66-67.Marx, Edward J. F.1916. A bold winter wren. Bird-Lore, vol. 18, p. 109.Mason, Edwin A.1936. Parasitism of birds' nests by Protocalliphora at Groton, Massachusetts.Bird-Banding, vol. 7, pp. 112-121.Mathews, Ferdinand Schuyler.1921. Field book of wild birds and their music. Rev. ed.
450 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMaynaru, Chakles Johnson.1896. The birds of eastern North America. 2d ed.McAtee, Waldo Lee.1920. Abundance of periodical cicadas, diverting attacks of birds from cul-tivated fruits. Auk, vol. 37, pp. 144-145.1926a. The relation of birds to woodlots in New York State. Roosevelt WildLife Bull., vol. 4, pp. 1-152.1926b. Judgment on the house wren. Bird-Lore, vol. 28, pp. 181-183.1940a. An experiment in songbird management. Auk, vol. 57, pp. 333-348.1940b. Mimicry by a brown thrasher. Auk, vol. 57, p. 574.McClintock, Nokman.1909. A successful failure. Bird-Lore, vol. 11, pp. 198-204. ?McIlwraith, Thomas.1894. The birds of Ontario.Mead, E. M.1903. The return of the nuthatch. Bird-Lore, vol. 5, pp. 12-13.Meaens, Edgar Alexander.1886. Some birds of Arizona. Auk, vol. 3, pp. 289-307.1890. Obsex'vations on the avifauna of portions of Arizona. Auk, vol. 7, pp.251-264.1902a. Descriptions of three new birds from the southern United States.Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 24, pp. 915-926.1902b. The cactus wrens of the United States. Auk, vol. 19, pp. 141-145.Meebiam, Clinton Habt.1895. The LeConte thrasher, Harporhynchuft lecontei. Auk, vol. 12, pp. 54-60.1899. Results of a biological survey of Mount Shasta, California. NorthAmer. Fauna, No. 16.Meeeux, James Cushing.1878. Notes on the ornithology of southern Texas, being a list of birds ob-served in the vicinity of Fort Brown, Texas, from February, 1876,to June, 1878. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 1, pp. 118-173, pis. 1-3.Mebeitt, Maude.1916. Wren notes. Wilson Bull., vol. 28, pp. 92-94.Mbtcaxf, E. I.1919. Is the house wren a bigamist? Bird-Lore, vol. 21, p. 303.Michael, Chaeles Wilson.1934. Nesting of the red-breasted nuthatch. Condor, vol. 36, p. 113.Michener, Harold, and Michenee, Josephine R.1935. Mockingbirds, their territories and individualities. Condor, vol. 37,pp. 97-140, fig. 23.Middleton, Raymond Jones.1936. Interesting albinos. Auk, vol. 53, p. 101.Millee, Edwin Vance.1941. Behavior of the Bewick wren. Condor, voL 43, pp. 81-99, figs. 25-27.MULEE, H.1891. Of interest to oologists. Oologist, vol. 8, pp. 183-184.Millee, Richard Fieij)s.1914. The red-bellied nuthatch {Sitta canadensis) feeding among weeds.Auk, vol. 31, pp. 253-254.MOEEIS, ROBEET TUTTLE.1923. Unusual nesting-sites. Bird-Lore, vol. 25, p. 316.1925. Do birds sometimes win in a fight with snakes? Bird-Lore, vol. 27,pp. 253-254.
LITERATURE CITED 451MOESE, Etta M.1923. A summer with a catbird family. Bird-Lore, vol. 25, pp. 251-252.MOULTON, Chables E.1921. A catbird in winter at Fays. Bull. Essex County Orn. Club, vol. 3,No. 1, p. 71.MOUSLEY, WrLLIAM HeNRY.1932. Further notes on the birds, orchids, ferns and butterflies of the Prov-ince of Quebec, 1931. Canadian Field-Nat., vol. 46, pp. 171-173.1934. A study of the home life of the short-billed marsh wren {Cistothorusstellaris). Auk, vol. 51, pp. 439-445, pi. 14.MuiB, John.1894. The water-ouzel. In "The Mountains of California," pp. 276-299,:\luNEo, James Alexandeb.1924. Notes on the relation of the dipper (Cinclus mexicanus unicolor) tofishing interests in British Columbia and Alberta. Can. Field-Nat.,vol. 38, pp. 48-50.MuBPHEY, Eugene Edmund.1937. Observations on the bird life of the middle Savannah Valley, 1890-1937.Contr. Charleston Mus., No. 9.MussELMAN, Thomas Edgab.1930. Two additional foot disases on birds. Bird-Banding, vol. 1, pp. 33-35,Ipl.Nauman, Emil Danton.1912. A tragedy narrowly averted. Bird-Lore, vol. 14, pp. 294^-296.1930a. Intimate nestings of the brown thrasher. Wilson Bull., vol. 42, p. 137.1930b. Cardinal vs. brown thrasher. Bird-Lore, vol. 32, pp. 274r-275.Nehbling, Heney.1893. Our native birds of song and beauty.Nelson, Edwabd William.1887. Report upon natural history collections made in Alaska. U. S. SignalService, Arctic ser., Publ. No. 3.Nelson, E. W., and Palmee, Theodobe Shebman.1894. Descriptions of five new birds from Mexico. Auk, vol. 11, pp. 39-^5.Newbeeby, Waltee Cass.1916. A chapter in the life history of the wren-tit. Condor, vol. 18, pp. 65-68,figs. 27, 28.Newton, Alfbed.1893-96. A dictionary of birds.Nice, Mabgabet Mobse.1931. The birds of Oklahoma. Rev. ed. Publ. Univ. Oklahoma, vol. 3,Biol. Surv. No, 1.Nobthcutt, Chables E.1937. The Bedford wrens. Bluebird, vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 19-20.Nuttall, Thomas.1832. A manual of the ornithology of the United States and of Canada.Land birds.1903. A manual of the ornithology of the United States and of Canada.Land birds. (Revised by Montague Chamberlain.)Obebholseb, Haery Chubch.1898. A revision of the wrens of the genus Thryomanes Sclater. Proc. U. S.Nat. Mus., vol. 21, pp. 421-450.1919. Notes on the wrens of the genus Nannus Billberg. Proc. U. S. Nat,Mus., vol. 55, pp. 223-236.
452 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMObebholser, Habby Chubch?Continued1921. Glimpses of desert bird life in the Great Basin. Ann. Rep. Smith-sonian Inst., 1919, pp. 355-366.1930. Another new subspecies of Nannus troglodytes from Alaska. Proc.Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 43, pp. 151-152.1932. Descriptions of new birds from Oregon, chiefly from the Warner Valleyregion. Sci. Publ. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., vol 4, No. 1, pp. 1-12.1934. A revision of the North American house wrens. Ohio Journ. Sci.,vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 86-96.1938. The bird life of Louisiana. Louisiana Dept. Conserv. Bull. 28.Obford, W. McLeod.1929. Cardinal vs. catbird. Bird-Lore, vol. 31, p. 263.Osgood, Wilfred Hudson.1901. New subspecies of North American birds. Auk, vol. 18, pp. 179-185,OVERiNG, Robert.1938. The 1937 fall migration at the Washington Monument, Wilson Bull.,vol. 50, p. 146.Peabody, Putnam Bubton.1906. Rocky Mountain nuthatch. Warbler, vol. 2, pp. 50-55, figs. 3, 4,PEABSE, THB3ED.1933. Display of winter wren (Nannus hiemalis pacificus). Murrelet, vol.14, p. 45.Pearson, Thomas Gilbert.1909. The mockingbird. The National Association of Audubon Societies.Educational leaflet No. 41. Bird-Lore, vol. 11, pp. 274-277, 1 col. pi,Pearson, Thomas Gilbert; Brimley, Ci^ment Samuel; and Brimley, HerbebtHutchinson,1919. Birds of North Carolina. North Carolina Geol. and Econ. Surv., vol. 4.Perkins, Samuel Eixiott, 3d,1928. Catbirds remain mated. Wilson Bull., vol. 40, p, 207.1930. The matings of the brown thrasher. Wilson Bull., vol. 42, p. 221.Pkiers, Harold Seymore.1933. External parasites collected from banded birds. Bird-Banding, vol. 4,pp. 68-75.1936, A list of external parasites from birds of the eastern part of theUnited States. Bird-Banding, vol. 7, pp. 9-27,Phillips, John Charles.1927. Catbirds and robins as fish-eaters. Bird-Lore, vol. 29, pp. 342-343.PHILP, Gn.BERT.1937, The effect of smudging on birds. Condor, vol. 39, p. 125,PiEBCE, Wright McEwen.1907, Notes on the pallid wren-tit. Condor, vol. 9, pp. 151-152,Piers, Harby.1898. Remarkable ornithological occurrences in Nova Scotia. Auk, vol, 15,pp. 195-196.Poole, Earl Lincoln.1938, Weights and wing areas in North American birds. Auk, vol. 55,pp. 511-517.Preble, Edward Alexander, and McAtee, Waldo Lee.1923. A biological survey of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, North Amer,Fauna, No. 46.PuBDUM, Charles Christopher.1902. The food supply of the meadowlark. Oologist, vol. 19, pp. 8-9,
LITERATURE CITED 453Band, Austin Loomeb.1941. Development and enemy recognition of the cui-ve-billed thrasher,Toxostoma curvirostre. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 78, pp.213-242.Ray, Milton Smith.1904. A fortnight on the Farallones. Auk, vol. 21, pp. 425-442.1909. Birds of the Big Basin. Condor, vol. 11, pp. 18-22.Rhoads, Maby Cawley.1924. Our winter guest. Bird-Lore, vol. 26, pp. 172-175.Richardson, Charles Howabd, Jr.1906. Birds whose notes are imitated by the western mockingbird. Condor,VOL 8, p. 56.RIDGWAY, ROBEajT.1876. Ornithology of Guadeloupe Island, based on notes and collections madeby Mr. Edward Palmer. Bull. Hayden Surv. Terr., pt. 2, pp. 183-195.1877. United States geological exploration of the fortieth parallel. Part 3
:
Ornithology.1889. The ornithology of Illinois, vol. 1, pt. 1.1904. The birds of North and Middle America. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3.1907. The birds of North and Middle America. U. S. Nat. Mus. BuU. 50, pt. 4.1912. Color standards and color nomenclature.RoBEBTS, Thomas Sadleb.1932. The birds of Minnesota. Vol. 2.RocKVFELL, RoBEET Blanchard, and Wetmoke, Alexander.1914. A list of birds from the vicinity of Golden, Colorado. Auk, vol. 31, pp.309-333, pis. 31-33.Rowley, John Stuart.1935. Notes on some birds of Lower California, Mexico. Condor, vol. 87,pp. 163-168, tigs. 32-33.Russell, Maby Merkick.1929. One catbird. Bird-Lore, vol. 31, pp. 192-193.Sage, John Hall; Bishop, Loxns Bennett; and Bliss, Walteb Parks.1913. The birds of Connecticut. State of Connecticut Public Doc. No. 47,State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv.Samuels, Edward Augustus.1867. Ornithology and oology of New England.1872. Birds of New England and adjacent States.Sabgbnt, Gbace Tompkins.1940. Observations on the behavior of color-banded California thrashers.Condor, vol. 42, pp. 49-60, figs. 15-17.Saunders, Abetas Andeews.1921. A distributional list of the birds of Montana. Pacific Coast Avif ., No. 14.1929a. The summer birds of the northern Adirondack Mountains. RooseveltWild Life Bull., vol. 5, pp. 327-499, figs. 93-160.1929b. Bird song. New York State Mus. Handb. 7.1935. A guide to bird songs.Schobgek, Ablie William.1926. Notes from Madison, Wisconsin. Auk, vol. 43, pp. 556-557.Schwab, L. H.1899. An odd nesting site Bird-Lore, vol. 1, p. 166.Sclateb, William Lutley.1912. A history of the birds of Colorado.758066?48 30
454 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMScott, William Earl Dodge.1885. Early spring notes from the mountains of southern Arizona. Auk,vol. 2, pp. 348-356.1888a. On the avifauna of Pinal County, with remarks on some birds ofPima and Gila Counties, Arizona. Auk, vol. 5, pp. 159-168.1888b. Supplementary notes from the gulf coast of Florida, with a descriptionof a new species of marsh wrens. Auk, vol. 5, pp. 183-188.1890. A summary of observations on the birds of the gulf coast of Florida.Auk, vol. 7, pp. 114-120.SELOtJS, Edmund.1901. Bird watching.Sennett, George Burritt.1878. Notes on the ornithology of the lower Rio Grande of Texas. Bull.U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv., vol. 4, pp. 1-66.1879. Farther notes on the ornithology of the lower Rio Grande of Texas.Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv., vol. 5, pp. 371-440.1889. Troglodytes aedon, house wren, breeding in a sand bank. Auk, vol.6, p. 76.1890. A new wren from the lower Rio Grande, Texas, with notes on Berlan-dier's wren of northeastern Mexico. Auk, vol. 7, pp. 57-60.Seton, Eenest Thompson.1890. The birds of Manitoba. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 13, pp. 457-643, pi.38.Shaw, Henry Southworth, Jr.1916. Some experiences in attracting birds?The nesting of a red-breastednuthatch. Bird-Lore, vol. 18, pp. 166-170.Sherman, Althea Rosina.1912. The brown thrasher {Toxostoma rufum) east and west. Wilson Bull,,vol. 24, pp. 187-191.1925. Down with the house wren boxes. Wilson Bull., vol. 37, pp. 5-13.Shxjfeldt, Robert Wilson.1893. Nesting habits of Galeoscoptes carolinensis. Auk, vol. 10, pp. 303-304.SiLLOWAY, PeRLEY MiLTON.1907. Stray notes from the Flathead woods. Condor, vol. 9, pp. 53-54.1923. Relation of summer birds to the western Adirondack forest. RooseveltWild Life Bull., vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 397-486.Simmons, George Finlay.1925. Birds of the Austin region.Simpson, Charles Torrey.1923. Out of doors in Florida.Skaggs, Merit B.1934. A study of the Bewick wren. Bird-Lore, vol. 36, p. 365.Skinner, Milton Philo.1922. Notes on the dipper in Yellowstone National Park. Condor, vol. 24,pp. 18-21.1928. A guide to the winter birds of the North Carolina sandhills.Skxjtch, Alexander Frank.1935. Helpers at the nest. Auk, vol. 52, pp. 257-273, pi. 12.1940. Social and sleeping habits of Central American wrens. Auk, vol. 57,pp. 293-312, pi. 5.Slosson, Annie Trumbull.1883. Birds in confinement. Ornithologist and Oologist, voL 8, p. 55.Smith, Philo W., Jb.1904. Nesting habits of the rock wren. Condor, vol. 6, pp. 109-110.
LITERATURE CITED 455Smith, Wilbur Fbankun.1911a. The friendly house wrens, Bird-Lore, vol. 13, pp. 135-140.1911b. A strange partnership. Bird-Lore, vol. 13, pp. 303-304.Spencer, Hugh.1928. Blacksuakes and birds. Bird-Lore, vol. 30, pp. 108-110.Speunt, Alexander, Jr.1931. Certain land birds observed at sea. Auk, vol. 48, pp. 133-134.Stafford, Eaele F.1912. Notes on Palmer's thrasher {Toxostoma curvirostre palmeri). Auk,vol. 29, pp. 363-368.Steigee, J. A.1940. Dipper, wilderness dweller. Bird-Lore, vol. 42, pp. 10-14,Stephens, Frank.1884, Collecting in the Colorado desert?Leconte's thrasher. Auk, vol. 1,pp. 353-358.Stevenson, James.1933. Experiments on the digestion of food by birds. Wilson Bull., vol. 45,pp. 155-167.Stockaed, Charles Rxjpert.1905. Nesting habits of birds in Mississippi. Auk, vol. 22, pp. 273-285.Stone, Witmer.1896. The molting of birds with special reference to the plumages of thesmaller land birds of eastern North America. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.Philadelphia, 1896, pp. 108-167.1911. The Carolina wren. The National Association of Audubon SocietiesEducational leaflet No. 50. Bird-Lore, vol. 13, pp. 167-170, 1 col. pi,1913a. Tlie catbird. The National Association of Audubou Societies Educa-tional leaflet No. 70. Bird-Lore, vol. 15, pp. 327-330, 1 col. pi.1913b. Bird migration records of William Bartram. Auk, vol. 30, pp. 325-358.1937. Bird studies at old Cape May, Vol. 2.Stoner, Dayton.1932. Ornithology of the Oneida Lake region: With reference to the latespring and summer seasons. Roosevelt Wild Life Ann., vol. 2,Nos. 3, 4,Stoner, Emerson Austin,1938. Creeper nesting in Solano County, California. Condor, vol. 40, p. 86,fig. 29.Stoeer, Tracy Iewin.1920. Lizard eaten by cactus wren. Condor, vol. 22, p. 159,SucKLErr, Geoege, and Coopek, James Graham.1860. The natural history of Washington Territory and Oregon.SUTXrVAN, MAUKICE.1940. Ivory gull from Mount Desert Island, Maine. Auk, vol. .57, p. 403,Sutton, Geoege Miksch,1928, The birds of Pymatuning Swamp and Conneaut Lake, Crawford County,Pennsylvania. Ann. Carnegie Mus., vol. 18, pp. 19-239, pis. 3-10.1930. The nesting wrens of Brooke County, West Virginia. Wilson Bull.,vol. 42, pp. 10-17.1940. Winter range of the short-billed marsh wren. Auk, vol. 57, p. 419.Swales, Beadshaw Hall, and Tavebner, Percy Algernon.1907. Recent ornithological developments in southeastern Michigan. Auk,vol. 24, pp. 13&-148.
456 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSWARXH, HARRY SCHELWAXD.1904a. The status of the southern California cactus wren. Condor, vol. 6,pp. 17-19.1904b. Birds of the Huachuca Mountains, Arizona. Pacific Coast Avifauna,No. 4.1916. The Pacific coast races of the Bewick wren. Proc. California Acad.Sci., ser. 4, vol. 6, pp. 53-85.1917. A revision of the marsh wrens of California. Auk, vol. 34, pp. 308-318.1920. Birds of the Papago Saguaro National Monument and the neighboringregion, Arizona.1924. Fall migration notes from the San Francisco Mountain region, Arizona.Condor, vol. 26, pp. 183-190.1929. The faunal areas of southern Arizona: A study in animal distribution.Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 18, pp. 267-383, pis. 27-32.Tate, Ralph C.192.5. Favorite foods of some Oklahoma birds. Univ. Oklahoma Bull., vol. 4,pp. 33-35.Tax'ernee, I'ehjcy Algernon.1919. The birds of the Red Deer River, Alberta. Auk, vol. 36, pp. 248-265.1934. Birds of Canada. Dept. of Mines, National Museum of Canada, Bull.No. 72, biol. ser. No. 19.Taverneb, p. a., and Swales, Bradshaw Hall.1908. The birds of Point Pelee. Wilson Bull., vol. 20, pp. 107-129.Tatlor, Gemrge Cavendish.1862. Five weeks in the peninsula of Florida during the spring of 1861, withnotes on the birds observed there. Ibis, vol. 4, pp. 127-142.Taylor, John W.1905. Incidents among birds. Bird-Lore, vol. 7, pp. 209-210.Taylor, Walter Penn.1912. Field notes on amphibians, reptiles and birds of northern HumboldtCounty, Nevada, with a discussion of some of the faunal featuresof the region. Univ. California Publ. Zool., vol. 7, pp. 319-^36, pis.7-12.Taylor, W. P., and Shaw, William Thomas.1927. Mammals and birds of Mount Rainier National Park.Teachenor, Dix.1927. Snakes' sloughs as nesting material. Auk, vol. 44, pp. 263-264.Terrill, Lewis McIver.1922. The short-billed marsh wren in the Montreal district. Auk, vol. 39, pp.112-115.Todd, Waltek Edmond Clyde.1940. Birds of western Pennsylvania.ToMKiNs, Ivan Rexford.1932. Worthington's marsh wren in the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, Wil-son Bull., vol. 44, p. 40.TORBEY, Bradford.1885. Birds in the bush.1904, Nature's invitation.Townsend, Charles Wendell.1905. The birds of Essex County, Massachusetts. Mem. Nuttall Orn. Club,No. 3.1909. A Carolina wren invasion of New England. Auk, vol. 26, pp. 263-269.1913. Some more Labrador notes. Auk, vol. 30, pp. 1-10.1924. Mimicry of voice in birds. Auk, vol. 41, pp. 541-552,
LITERATURE CITED 457Tbatttman, Milton Bebnakd.1940. The birds of Buckeye Lake, Ohio. Univ. Michigan Mus. ZooL, Misc.Publ., No. 44.Tbine, Mrs. George W.1935. The case against the bronzed grackle. Nebraska Bird Rev., vol. 3,pp. 54-55.1940. Some June bird notes from Red Cloud, Webster County. NebraskaBird Rev., vol. 8, p. 91.Turner, Lucien McShan.1886. Contributions to the natural history of Alaska. U. S. Signal Service,Arctic ser., Publ. No. 2.Tyler, John Grippeb.1913. Some birds of the Fresno district, California. Pacific Coast Avifauna,No. 9.Tyler, Winsor Maebett.1914. Notes on nest life of the brown creeper in Massachusetts. Auk, vol.31, pp. 50-62.1916. A study of a white-breasted nuthatch. Wilson Bull., vol. 28, pp. 18-25.Van Denburgh, John.1899. Notes on some birds of Santa Clara County, California. Proc. Amet.Philos. Soc, vol. 38, No. 160, p. 177.VAN ROSSEM, AdRLA^AN JOSEPH.1929. The races of Sitta pygmaea Vigors. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,vol. 42, pp. 175-178.1930. Four new birds from northwestern Mexico. Trans. San Diego Soc.Nat. Hist., vol. 6, pp. 213-226.1931. Description of new birds from the mountains of southern Nevada.Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 6, pp. 325-332.1936. Birds of the Charleston Mountains, Nevada. Pacific Coast Avifauna,No. 24.1943. The horned lark and the rock wren of the San Benito Islands, LowerCalifornia. Condor, vol. 45, pp. 235-236.Van Tyne, Josseltn, and Sutton, George Miksch.1937. The birds of Brewster County, Texas. Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool. Misc.Publ. No. 37, pp. 5-115, pis. 1-5.VoRHiES, Charles Taytx)r.1921. The water ouzel in Arizona. Condor, vol. 23, pp. 131-132,Walkinshaw, Lawrence Harvey.1935. Studies of the short-billed marsh wren {Cistothorus stellaris) inMichigan. Auk, vol. 52, pp. 362-369, pi. 17.Warren, Benjamin Harry.1888. Report on the birds of Pennsylvania.Wayne, Arthur Trezevant.1899. Desti-uction of birds by the great cold wave of February 13 and 14,1889. Auk, vol. 16, pp. 197-198.1910. Birds of South Carolina.Webster, Frank Blake.1892. Brief notes. Onithologist and Oologist, vol. 17, p. 95.Wellman, Gobdon Boit.1933. The courtship flight of the red-breasted nuthatch. Auk, vol. 50, p. 112.
458 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWelter, WrLFEED August.1935. The natural history of the long-billed marsh wren. Wilson Bull., vol.47, pp. 3-34, figs. 1-4.1936. Feather arrangement, development, and molt of the long-billed marshwren. Wilson Bull., vol. 48, pp. 256-269.Wetheiibee, Mrs. Kenneth Brackett.1930. Cooperative parents. Bird-Lore, vol. 32, p. 202.Wetmore, Alexander.1920. Observations on the habits of birds at Lake Burford, New Mexico.Auk, vol. 37, pp. 393-412.1921. Further notes on birds observed near Williams, Arizona. Condor,vol. 23, pp. 60-64.1923. Present status of the Carolina wren near Washington, D. C. Auk,vol. 40, pp. I34r-135.1936. The number of contour feathers in passeriform and related birds.Auk, vol. 53, pp. 159-169.1939. Notes on the birds of Tennessee, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 86, pp.175-243.1941. Notes on the birds of North Carolina. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 90,pp. 483-530.WeTDEMEYER, WiNTON,1930. An unusual case of mimicry by a catbird. Condor, vol. 32, pp. 124r-125.1933. Zonal range of the red-breasted nuthatch in northwestern Montana.Condor, vol. 35, pp. 32-33.Wheelek, Mrs. A. L,1933. Brown creepers as guests. Bird-Lore, vol. 35, p. 268.Wheeler, Habry Edgar.1931. The status, breeding range, and habits of Marian's marsh wren.Wilson Bull., vol. 43, pp. 247-267.Whkelock, Irene Grosvenor.1904. Birds of California.1905. Regurgitative feeding of nestlings. Auk, vol. 22, pp. 54-70.Whittle, Charles Livy.1921. Sociable water ouzels. Auk, vol. 38, pp. 118-119.1922. Additional data regarding the famous Arnold Arboretum mocking-bird. Auk, vol. 39, 496-506.1930. An old Avhite-breasted nuthatch. Bird-Banding, vol. 1, p. 83.Whittle, Helen Granger.1923. Recent experiences with nesting catbirds. Auk, vol. 40, pp. 603-606.1925. Catbird history. Bull. Northeastern Bird-Banding Assoc, vol 1, pp.48-49.1926. Recent history of a pair of white-breasted nuthatches, nos. 117455 5and 117456 9. Bull. Northeastern Bird-Banding Assoc, vol. 2,pp. 72-74.WmMANN, Otto.1882. Cuckoos laying in the nests of other birds. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club,vol. 7, pp. 56-57.1907. A preliminary catalogue of the birds of Missouri.WiLLARD, Francis Cottle.1912. Nesting of the Rocky Mountain nuthatch. Condor, vol. 14, pp. 213-215.1923. Some unusual nesting sites of several Arizona birds. Condor, vol.25, p. 121, figs. 41^3.
LITERATURE CITED 459Williams, Helen Patteeson.1931. Modern steel construction. Nature Mag., vol. 17, p. 167.WlLLLA^MS, LAIDLAW OndEBDONK.1941. Roosting habits of the chestnut-backed chickadee and the Bewick wren.Condor, vol. 43, pp. 274-285, figs. 77-81.WiLLLAMS, ROBEBT WHITE.1918. My nuthatch tenants and a pair of red-headed ruffians. Bird-Lore,vol. 20, pp. 217-218.Wilson, Ajlexandeb, and Bonaparte, Charles Lucien.1832. American ornithology. Vol. 1.WiNTLE, Ernest Douglas.1883. Ornithological notes. Can. Sportsman and Nat., vol. 3, p. 200.Wood, Harold Bacon.1930. Bee-eating catbird. Bird-Banding, vol. 1, p. 43.1934. Death on the highway. Oologist, vol. 51, p. 128.Wood, John Claire.1905. Some Wayne Coimty, Michigan, notes, 1905. Auk, vol. 22, pp. 423-424.Woodcock, Arthur Roy.1902. Annotated list of the birds of Oregon. Oregon Agr. Exp. Stat. Bull.No. 68.Wylie, Edward A. Giix.1914. [Letter quoted in "Birds and the Army-worm."] Bird-Lore, vol. 16,p. 400.W., J. B.1884. [Note on catbird at nest of wood pewee.] Young Oologist, vol. 1, p. 56.Xantus, John.1859. Description of supposed new species of birds from Cape St. Lucas,Lower California. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1859, pt.1, pp. 297-299.

INDEX
aculeata, Sitta carolinensis, 12, 13, 14,17, 20, 21.aedon. Troglodytes, 179.Troglodytes aedon, 113, 140.aestuarinus, Telmatodytes palustris,239, 264.affinis, Heleodytes brunneicapillus, 220,231-233, 235.alascensis, Troglodytes troglodytes, 159,163.Alaska wren, 159, 163.alba, Pagophila, 297.Alberta marsh wren, 239, 247.albescens, Certhea familiaris, 69, 72, 79.albifrons, Catherpes mexicanus, 276,278, 280.Alcorn, G. D., on California creeper, 77.on tule wren, 261, 264.Aldrich, John W., on AppalachianBewick's wren, 183.Aleutian wren, 159, 161.alexandrae, Sitta carolinensis, 12, 20.Allard, H. A., on catbird, 345.Allen, A. A., on catbird, 355.on prairie marsh wren, 256.on white-breasted nuthatch, 5.Allen, Amelia S., on California thrasher,408, 409.on canyon wren, 281.on common rock wren, 286.on dipper, 102.on Gambel's wren-tit, 92.on pygmy nuthatch, 45.on tule wren, 264.on Vigors's wren, 194, 196.on western house wren, 144.Allen, C. S., on eastern house wren, 119.Allen, Francis H., on Bewick's wren, 180.on brown ceeper, 63.on catbird, 333, 338, 341-343.on eastern winter wren, 156.on red-breasted nuthatch, 28-30.on short-billed marsh wren, 273.on white-breasted nuthatch, 3, 6, 9.Allen, J. A., 370.Alley, Mrs. J. L., on eastern mocking-bird, 307.altus, Thryomanes bewickii, 181, 183.Amadon, Dean, 99.on crissal thrasher, 421.americana, Certhia familiaris, 56, 69,71, 77.anatum, Falco peregrinus, 307.Anderson, A. H., on common rock wren,291.on northern cactus wren, 229.Angus, H. L., on eastern house wren, 119.
Anthony, A. W., on Bryant's cactuswren, 232.on Cedros Island wren, 202.on desert thrasher, 419.on Guadalupe wren, 203, 204.on Mearns's thrasher, 382.on northern cactus wren, 223.on San Clemente wren, 200.on San Pedro wren-tit, 96.on white-naped nuthatch, 55.anthonvi, Heleodytes brunneicapillus,220.Apache wren, 146.Appalachian Bewick's wren, 181, 183.arenicola, Toxostoma lecontei, 419.Argue, Arthur, on brown creeper, 68.Arnold, C. M., on brown creeper, 54.Arnold, W. W., on western house wren,143.atkinsi, Sitta, 12, 13.Sitta carolinensis, 17.atrestus Thryomanes bewickii, 181, 191.Atwater, H. P., on Texas wren, 185.Audubon, J. J., 296, 371.on brown creeper, 57.on brown thrasher, 355.Aughey, S., 52, 59, 103.Averill, C. K., Jr., on red-breastednuthatch, 27.Ayer, Mrs. N. Edward, on northerncactus wren, 225, 228.Badger, M. C, 199.Bagg, A. C. and Eliot, S. A., Jr., onbrown thrasher, 371.on short-billed marsh wren, 272.Bailey, Florence M., on Baird's wren,188.on black-eared nuthatch, 47, 54.on canyon wren, 279, 283.on common rock wren, 285, 290.on crissal thrasher, 423, 424.on dipper, 97.on northern cactus wren, 219-222.on Palmer's thrasher, 394.on plateau thrasher, 398.on Rocky Mountain creeper, 71.on Rocky Mountain nuthatch, 15.on sage thrasher, 428,430.on western mockingbird, 320.Bailey, H. B., 357.Bailey, H. H., on eastern mockingbird,306.on Florida nuthatch, 13.Bailey, Vernon, on LeConte's thrasher,417. 461
462 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBaird, S. F., on tule wren, 261.on western brown thrasher, 374.on western winter wren, 170.Baird, S. F., Brewer, T. M., andRidgway, Robert, on easternmockingbird, 309.on eastern winter wren, 151
.
on San Lucas thrasher, 379, 380.Baird's wren, 147, 181, 186.Baldwin, Penelope, on catbird, 339.Baldwin, S. P., on eastern house wren,122, 124, 134.Baldwin, S. P., and Bowen, W. W., oneastern house wren, 125.Baldwin, S. P., and Kendeigh, S. C,on eastern house wren, 123, 128.baldwini, Troglodj'tes aedon, 140, 146.Troglodytes domestica, 114.Troglodytes domesticus, 146.Ball, W. H., on catbird, 331.Bancroft, GrifBng, on Bryant's cactuswren, 232.on desert thrasher, 419.on Mearns's thrasher, 382.on San Lucas cactus wren, 233,234.on San Lucas thrasher, 378-381.Banded cactus wren, 228.Bangs, Outram, on gray-headed nut-hatch, 42.on long-billed marsh wren, 235.on prairie marsh wren, 248.Bangs, Outram, and Bradlee, T. S., oncatbird, 321.Bard, Fred, 427.Barnes, Claude T., on dipper, 101, 110.Barrows, W. B., on red-breasted nut-hatch, 23, 29.Batchelder, Charles F., on canyonwren, 284.Bates, Clara, on eastern mockingbird,307.Battell, Harriet C, on catbird, 329.on eastern house wrens, 120.Bayliss, Clara K., on eastern housewren, 130.Beal, F. E. L., on black-eared nut-hatch, 52.on brown thrasher, 363, 364.on California creeper, 78.on California thrasher, 406.on catbird, 330-332.on eastern house wren, 129.on eastern mockingbird, 305.on Gambel's wren-tit, 87.on northern cactus wren, 227.on tule wren, 263.on Vigors's wren, 194.on western mockingbird, 319.Beal, F. E. L., McAtee, W. L., andKalmbach, E. R., on Carolinawren 209.on eastern house wren, 129.Beckham, C. W., on catbird, 348.Beebe, William, on white-throated wren277.fielding, L., 21.
bendirei, Toxostoma, 383, 394, 397.Bendire's thrasher, 382, 383.Benners, George B., on Brownsvillethrasher, 401.berlandieri, Thryothorus ludovicianus,217-219.bermudianvis, Dumetella, 321.bewickii, Thryomanes, 188, 190, 192,199.Thryomanes bewickii, 176, 181,183, 184.Bewick's wren, 176.Bicknell, E. P., 337.Bishop, L. B., on Marian's marsh wren,243.Bishop, L. B., Sage, J. H., and Bliss,W. P., on catbird, 324.Black, J. D., 327.Black-eared nuthatch, 47.Blake, S. F., on slender-billed nut-hatch, 19.BUss, W. P., Sage, J. H., and Bishop,L. B., on catbird, 324.Boggs, Marion A., on brown thrasher,347.on catbird, 347.BoUes, Frank, on brown creeper, 67.Bond, R. M., on common rock wren,289.Boulton, W. R., Jr., on eastern housewren, 127.Bowen, W. W., and Baldwin, S. P., oneastern house wren, 125.Bowles, Charles W., on tule wren, 263.Bowles, J. H., on California creeper, 77.on Seattle wren, 189.on western winter wren, 173.Bowles, J. H., and Dawson, W. L., ontule wren, 263.on western marsh wren, 260.on western winter wren, 172.Brackbill, Hervey, on catbird, 331, 344.on eastern house wren, 131, 132,136.Bradbury, W. C, on Rocky Mountaincreeper, 72.Bradlee, T. S., and Bangs, Outram, oncatbird, 321.Brand, Albert R., on catbird, 336.on eastern house wren, 134.on eastern winter wren, 155.Brandt, Herbert, on Apache wren, 146,147.Braund, Frank W., 356, 421, 429.on Bendire's thrasher, 385.on eastern mockingbird, 303, 304.on prairie marsh wren, 253.on western mockingbird, 318.Breckenridge, W. J., on brown creeper,64.on catbird, 344.Bretherton, Bernard J., on coast wren-tit, 80.brevicauda, Thryomanes bewickii, 182,202.
INDEX 463Brewer, T. M., on brown creeper, 58,59.on brown thrasher, 366.Brewer, T. M., Baird, S. F., and Ridg-way, Robert, on eastern winter wren,151.Brewster, William, on Bewick's wren,177, 179.on brown creeper, 58, 59, 62, 67.on brown-headed nuthatch, 40.on catbird, 348.on crissal thrasher, 420, 423.on LeConte's thrasher, 416.on eastern winter wren, 148, 151,157.on Palmer's thrasher, 393, 394.on red-breasted nuthatch, 25, 27,29, 32.on San Lucas cactus wren, 234.on San Lucas nuthatch, 21.on San Lucas thrasher, 378, 381.on white-bellied nuthatch, 2, 3, 5, 7.on Worthington's marsh wren, 241.Brimley, C. S., on brown-headed nut-hatch, 37.Brimley, C. S., Pearson, T. G., andBrimley, H. H., on catbird, 323.Brimley, H. H., Pearson, T. G., andBrimley, C. S., on catbird, 323.Brooks, Earl, on catbird, 328.Brooks, Maurice, on Carolina wren, 210,214.Broun, Maurice, 4.Brown, D. E., 76, 77.Brown, Herbert, on Bendire's thrasher,384, 385.on Palmer's thrasher, 392, 395, 397,398.Brown, N. C., on brown-headed nut-hatch, 40.Brown creeper, 56.Brown thrasher, 351.Brown-headed nuthatch, 13, 35.Brownsville thrasher, 400.brunneicapillus, Heleodytes, 232, 234.Bryant, W. E., on Guadalupe rock wren,293-295.on Guadalupe wren, 203, 204.on tule wren, 262.bryanti, Heleodytes brunneicapillus,220, 231, 235.Bryant's cactus wren, 231.Burch, J. W., 44.Burk, W. L., on catbird, 345.Burleigh, T. D., on brown creeper, 68.on eastern house wren, 119.on eastern winter wren, 157.on red-breasted nuthatch, 24.on southern creeper, 71.on southern winter wren, 161.on western winter wren, 173.on white-breasted nuthatch, 2, 3.Burleigh, T. D., and Lowery, G. H., Jr.,on white-throated wren, 276,burleighi, Tliryothorus ludovicianus,216.
Burleigh's Carolina wren, 216.Burns, F. L., 300.on eastern house wren, 124.on red-breasted nuthatch, 26.Burroughs, John, on eastern mocking-bird, 310.Burtch, Verdi, 150.on brown creeper, 60.Butler, A. W., on Bewick's wren, 178,180.Butts, Wilbur K., on white-breastedhuthatch, 5, 7.cahooni. Troglodytes brunneicoUis, 146,147.Gaboon's wren, 147.Calhoun, Clara, on Carolina wren, 207.California creeper, 69, 76.Cahfornia thrasher, 402, 410.californica, Lophortyx, 378.calophonus, Thryomanes bewickii 181,188, 191.Cameron, E. S., on brown thrasher, 357.canadensis, Sitta, 22.canescens, Sitta pygmaea, 46, 55.canicauda, Chamaea fasciata, 93, 95.caniceps, Sitta pusilla, 41, 42.Canyon wren, 278.capistratus, Heleodytes, 228.carbonarius, Thryomanes bewickii, 201.Carolina wren, 205.carolinensis, Dumetella, 320.Sitta, 14, 15, 21.Sitta carolinensis, 4, 11-13, 17, 30.Carpenter, Nelson, 147.Carpenter, N. K., 201.Catalina wren, 182, 199.catalinae, Thryomanes bewickii, 182,199.Catbird, 320.Catesby, Mark, 295, 296, 309.Catherpes mexicanus albifrons, 276, 278,280.mexicanus conspersus, 278.mexicanus mexicanus, 276, 278.mexicanus polioptilus, 279.mexicanus punctulatus, 279, 280.Cedros Island wren, 182, 202.celsum, Toxostoma curvirostre, 389, 398,400.cerroensis, Thryomanes bewickii, 182,202.Certhea familiaris, 58, 59, 69, 79.familiaris albescens, 69, 72, 79.familiaris americaua, 56, 69, 71, 77.familiaris leucosticta, 69, 79.familiaris montana, 69, 71, 79.familiaris nigrescens, 69, 71.familiaris occidentalis, 69, 76.familiaris zelotes, 69, 73, 77, 79.Certhiidae, 56.Chace, Leda W., on catbird, 328.Chadbourne, Arthur P., on browncreeper, 61, 63.
464 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMChamaea fasciata canicauda, 93, 95.fasciata fasciata, 80, 81, 93, 94, 96.fasciata henshawi, 87, 93, 94, 96.fasciata intermedia, 93, 94.fasciata phaea, 79, 93.fasciata rufula, 80, 93.Chamaeidae, 79.Chamberlain, E. B., on eastern mocking-bird, 300, 301, 313.Chapman, F. M., on brown-headed nut-hatch, 40.on Carolina wren, 205.on catbird, 329.on eastern house wren, 114, 138.on eastern mockingbird, 311.on prairie marsh wren, 256.charienturus, Thryomanes bewickii, 182,187, 192, 198, 199, 201-203.Cinclidae, 96.Cinclus mexicanus mexicanus, 112, 113.mexicanus unicolor, 96, 112, 113.cinereum, Toxostoma cinereum, 377,382.Cistothorus palustris, 248.platensis stellaris, 265.Clark, A. H., on Aleutian wren, 162.Clark, Josiah H., on long-billed marshwren, 237.on Palmer's thrasher, 397.on plateau thrasher, 398, 399.Clarke, C. J., on catbird, 343.Clayton, F. C, 303.Coast wren-tit, 79, 93.Cole, L. J., on Bewick's wren, 176.on eastern house wren, 122.Colton, W. N., on catbird, 323.Common rock wren, 284, 292.Commons, Marie A., on catbird, 338,339.consobrinus, Pipilo, 204.conspersus, Catherpes mexicanus, 278.Cook, Mrs. H. P., on brown thrasher,370.Cooke, W. W., on eastern house wren,131.cookei, Sitta carolinensis, 1.Cooper, J. G., 411.on western house wren, 144.Cooper, J. G., and Suckley, G., ondipper, 99.Cordier, A. H., on dipper, 100, 101, 106,108, 109.correctus, Thryomanes bewickii, 182,198-200, 203.Cottam, Clarence, Williams, C. S., andSooter, C. A., on sage thrasher,432.Coues, Elliott, 411.on Alaska wren, 165, 168.on Baird's wren, 187.on sage thrasher, 428.couesi, Heleodytes brunneicapillus. 219.231, 232.
Creeper, brown, 56.California, 69, 76.eastern brown, 69.Mexican, 69, 72.Nevada, 69, 79.Rocky Mountain, 69, 71.Sierra, 69, 73.southern 69, 71.Crissal thrasher, 420, 426.Crompton, E. C, 166, 167.cryptus, Thryomanes bewickii, 181,183, 186, 187.Currier, E. S,, on brown thrasher, 357.curvirostre, Toxostoma, 390, 394, 400.Toxostoma cinereum, 379.Daley, Florence K., on red-breastednuthatch, 26.Dawson, W. L., 311.on brown thrasher, 356.on California creeper, 77, 78.on California thrasher, 404.on canyon wren, 279.on Carolina wren, 213.on common rock wren, 290.on crissal thrasher, 424.on dipper, 109.on northern cactus wren, 221, 227.on Palmer's thrasher, 391.on red-breasted nuthatch, 25.on sage thrasher, 430.on Seattle wren, 190.on slender-billed nuthatch, 19.on tule wren, 264.on Vigors's wren, 194.on western winter wren, 171.Dawson, W. L. and Bowles, J. H., ontule wren, 263.on western marsh wren, 260.on western winter wren, 172.Deane, Ruthven, 127.on catbird, 330.Deck, R. S., on catbird, 333.delawarensis, Larus, 307.Desert thrasher, 419.Dickey, D. R. and van Rossem, A. J.,on common rock wren, 288.Dingle, E. von S., and Sprunt, Alex-ander, Jr., on Marian's marshwren, 243.on Wayne's marsh wren, 246.Dipper, 96.Mexican, 112, 113.Dixon, Edwin, on catbird, 328.Dixon, Joseph, Grinnell, Joseph, andLinsdale, J. M., on Rocky Moun-tain nuthatch, 15.on Sierra creeper, 74, 76.on slender-billed nuthatch, 17.on Sonoma thrasher, 411.Doe, C. E., 200, 201.domestica. Troglodytes, 113.domesticus. Troglodytes, 146.Troglodytes domesticus, 146.Doolittle, E. A., on catbird, 335.dorsale, Toxostoma, 404.Toxostoma dorsale, 420, 426.
INDEX 465Drake, Mrs. Gilbert, on eastern housewren, 120.Dresser, Robert, 346.drvmoecus, Thryomanes bewickii, 182,191, 192, 197-199.DuBois, A. D., 133, 323.on Bewick's wren, 178.on brown creeper, 63.on brown thraslier, 356, 366.on dipper, 104.on prairie marsh wren, 252.Dumetella bermudianus, 321.carolinensis, 320.Dunn, Harry H., on San Diego wren, 198.Durfee, Owen, 150, 267.Dutcher, W., on red-breasted nut-hatch, 32.Dwight, Jonathan, Jr., on catbird, 329.on eastern house wren, 126, 127.on eastern mockingbird, 305.on eastern winter wren, 152.on prairie marsh wren, 254, 255.on short-billed marsh wren, 270.on white-breasted nuthatch, 5.Dyer, Ernest I., on California thrasher,405.Eastern brown creeper, 69.brown thrasher, 372.house wren, 113.mockingbird, 295, 314.winter wren, 148.Eaton, E, H., on catbird, 334.on prairie marsh wren, 249. 259.Edson, W. L. G., and Horsey, R. E.,on red-breasted nuthatch, 24.Ehinger, C. E., on dipper, 98, 107, 108,110.on western winter wren, 175.Ekblaw, S. E., on brown thrasher, 367.Elliot, S. A., Jr., and Bagg, A. C., onbrown thrasher, 371.EUiott, H. W., 168.on Alaska wren, 165.Engels, W. L., on Bendire's thrasher,387.on California thrasher, 403, 404, 407.on crissal thrasher, 423.on Palmer's thrasher, 395.eremophilus, Thryomanes bewickii, 147,181, 186.Erickson, Mary M., on coast wren-tit,80.on Gambel's wren-tit, 81.Errington, P. L., on catbird, 344.on eastern house wren, 136.Erwin, W. G., on brown thrasher, 352,354-356, 358-360.euronotus, Thrvothorus ludovicianus,217.Evans, C, on eastern house wren, 133.Evenden, F., 18.on dipper, 102.Falco peregrinus anatum, 307.familiaris, Certhea, 58, 59, 69, 79.Fargo, W. G., on mockingbird, 304.
Farley, Frank L., 72.on dipper. 111.on eastern mockingbird, 297.Farley, J. A., on eastern mockingbird,312.fasciata, Chamaea fasciata, 80, 81, 93,94, 96.Fisher, A. K., on eastern house wren, 136.Flanagan, John H., 149.Florida nuthatch, 12.wren, 216, 217.Forbes, S. A., on catbird, 334.Forbush, E. H., on brown thrasher,363, 370.on Carolina wren, 214.on catbird, 333, 339.on eastern house wren, 118, 121.on eastern mockingbird, 297, 299,300, 311.on eastern winter wren, 153, 156,157.on prairie marsh wren, 255.on red-breasted nuthatch, 27.on short-billed marsh wren, 268.on white-breasted-nuthatch, 2, 4,6, 7.Frazar, M. A., 21.Fredericks, Robert, 303.Friedmann, Herbert, on Bendire'sthrasher, 385.on Bewick's wren, 178.on brown thrasher, 370.on Brownsville thrasher, 401, 402.on Carolina wren, 214.on catbird, 346.on eastern house wren, 137.on eastern mockingbird, 313.on pallid wren-tit, 95.on Sennett's thrasher, 375.on Texas wren, 186.on western mockingbird, 320.on white-breasted nutharch, 10.Gabrielson, T. N., on brown thrasher,360, 361.on catbird, 325-327, 335.Gale, Denis, 99.gambeli, Lophortyx, 378.Gambel's wren-tit, 81, 93.Gander, F. F., on western mocking-bird, 317.Gignoux, C, on black-eared nuthatch,49, 50.GiU, Geoffrey, on catbird, 328, 332, 347.Gilman, M. F., on Bendire's thrasher,385-388.on crissal thrasher, 421, 422, 425.on LeConte's thrasher, 414, 415,417, 418.on Palmer's thrasher, 391, 392, 395.on sage thrasher, 428, 429.Godard, A. H., on eastern house wren,120.Goelitz, W. A., on eastern house wren,120.Goodpasture, A, V., on eastern mock-ingbird, 301, 312.
466 BULLETIN 19 5, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMGray-headed nuthatch, 41, 42.Greenway, James C, 244.GriflFee, W. E., on black-eared nuthatch,48, 49.on slender-billed nuthatch, 17, 18.Griffin, W. L., 356.Griggs, Julian G., on long-billed marshwren, 235-237.Grimes, S. A., 13.Grinnell, Joseph, on Baird's wren, 188.on black-eared nuthatch, 47, 48.on Cahfornia thrasher, 403, 407, 410.on Catahna wren, 199.on Gambel's wren-tit, 90.on intermediate wren-tit, 94.on Inyo nuthatch, 19, 20.on LeConte's thrasher, 413, 415, 416.on Nicasio wren, 191.on San Pedro nuthatch, 20.on Sierra creeper, 74, 75.on Sonoma thrasher, 411.on sooty wren, 201.on Trinidad thrasher, 426.Grinnell, Joseph, Dixon, Joseph, andLinsdale, J. M., on RockyMountain nuthatch, 15.on Sierra creeper, 74, 76.on slender-billed nuthatch, 17.on Sonoma thrasher, 411.on western house wren, 143.Grinnell, Joseph, and Linsdale, J. M.,on black-eared nuthatch, 48.on California creeper, 76, 79.on California thrasher, 407.on pygmy nuthatch, 44, 45.on Vigors's wren, 196.Grinnell, Joseph, and Storer, T. I., oncanyon wren, 282.on dipper, 97, 105, 108, 110.on pallid wren-tit, 95.on slender-billed nuthatch, 18, 19.on western winter wren, 171, 174.Grinnell, Joseph, and Swarth, H. S., onSan Pedro wren-tit, 96.griseus, Telmatodytes palustris, 239,241, 245.Gross, A. O., 142.on catbird, 320.on eastern house wren, 113.Guadalupe rock wren, 292, 293.Guadalupe wren, 182, 202.guadeloupensis, Salpinctes obsoletus,292, 293.Hall, Mary P., 156.Hall, W. F., 151.Hardy, Manly, on red-breasted nut-hatch, 23.Harlow, R. C, 10, 121, 324.on catbird, 324.on eastern house wren, 121.Harper, Francis, on Alberta marshwren, 247.on brown-headed nuthatch, 38.Harporhynchus rufus, 386.Harrington, Mrs. A. B., on easternmockingbird, 298.
Harris, Harry, on brown thrasher, 352.Harris, Lucien, on white-breasted nut-hatch, 3.Hart, R. E., on eastern house wren, 118.Harvey, G. V., on slender-billed nut-hatch, 18.Hathaway, H. S., 149.on eastern house wren, 135.Hayward, W. J., on catbird, 328.Heath, Harold, on Alaska wren, 164,165, 167.Hebard, Frederick V., on brown creeper,66.on brown thrasher, 359.on eastern mockingbird, 302.on gray-headed nuthatch, 43, 44.on short-billed marsh wren, 274.Hegler, Marie E., on catbird, 339.Heleodytes brunneicapillus, 232, 234.brunneicapillus affinis, 220, 231-233, 235.brunneicapillus anthonyi, 220.brunneicapillus brvanti, 220, 231,235.brunneicapillus couesi, 219, 231,232.brunneicapillus purus, 231, 234.capistratus, 228.zonatus, 228.helleri. Troglodytes troglodytes, 159,170.Hempel, Kathleen M., on easternhouse wren, 126.Hendee, R. W., on Baird's wren, 186,187.Henderson, A. D., on Alberta marshwren, 247.Henderson, Grant, on eastern housewren, 136.Henderson, Junius, on black-eared nut-hatch, 52.on common rock wren, 289.on dipper, 103.Henshall, J. A., on dipper, 106.Henshaw, H. W., on northern cactuswren, 230.on sage thrasher, 428.henshawi, Chamaea fasciata, 87, 93,94, 96.Herman, W. C, on brown thrasher, 357.Hersey, F. Seymour, 144.hiemalis, Nannus, 161.Troglodytes troglodytes, 148, 159.Hills, V. G., on eastern house wren, 125.Hoffmann, Ralph, on black-eared nut-hatches, 54.on canyon wren, 284.on catbird, 337.on common rock wren, 290.on eastern house wren, 137.on eastern mockingbird, 312.on LeConte's thrasher, 418.on sage thrasher, 428, 433.on short-billed marsh wren, 272.on slender-billed nuthatch, 19.on Vigors's wren, 196.on western mockingbird, 316.
INDEX 467Holland, H. M., on mockingbird, 301.Holmes, C. F., 427.Holt, E. G., and Sutton, G. M., on cat-bird, 334.Holterhoflf, Godfrey, Jr., on LeConte'sthrasher, 414.Hooded cactus wren. 228.Horsey, R. E., and Edson, S. L. G., onred-breasted nuthatch, 24.Howell, A. B., on San Clemente wren,200.Howell, A. H., on brown thrasher, 359.on brown-headed nuthatch, 39.on Carolina wren, 206.on catbird, 321, 344.on eastern house wren, 138.on eastern mockingbird, 299, 300,306, 310.on eastern winter wren, 153, 158.on Florida nuthatch, 13.on Florida wren, 217.on gray-headed nuthatch, 42.on Marian's marsh wren, 242, 244.on eastern mockingbird, 310, 312.on short-billed marsh wren, 270, 274.on Worthington's marsh wren, 241.HoweU, A. H., and Oldys, Henry, onBewick's wren, 180.Huey, L. M., on LeConte's thrasher, 415.Hunt, C. J., on brown creeper, 57.on long-billed marsh wren, 235, 236.Hunter, L. E., on eastern house wren, 136.iliacus, Telmatodytes palustris, 239,247, 248, 259.intermedia, Chamaea fasciata, 93, 94.Intermediate wren-tit, 93, 94.Inyo nuthatch, 19.Job, H. K., 365.Jones, Mrs. A. H., on black-eared nut-hatch, 53.Jones, Lynds.on'eastern house wren, 130.Judd, S. D., on catbird, 330, 332, 334.on eastern house wren, 130.Kalmbach, E. R., on sage thrasher, 430.Kalmbach, E. R., Beal, F. E. L., andMcAtee, W, L., on Carolina wren, 209.Kendeigh, S. C, on eastern house wren,116, 117, 122, 123, 125, 128, 138.Kendeigh, S. C, and Baldwin, S. P., oneastern house wren, 123, 128.Kennard, F. H., 357,on eastern winter wren, 150.Kennard, F. H., and McKechnie, F. B.,on brown creeper, 61.Kennedy, C. H., on sage thrasher, 430.King, F. H., on prairie marsh wren, 255.Kiska wren, 159, 163.kiskensis. Troglodytes troglodytes, 159,163.Knappen, Phoebe, on catbird, 334.Knight, O. W., on catbird, 338.on eastern winter wren, 150, 151.on red-breasted nuthatch, 23, 27.on short-billed marsh wren, 271.
Knowlton, G. F., on sage thrasher, 431.Kodiak wren, 159, 170.Kopman, H. H., on catbird, 348.on eastern house wren, 132.Lacey, Howard, on canyon wren, 283.lagunae, Sitta carolinensis, 12, 21.laingi, Telmatodytes palustris, 239, 247.Langille, J. H., on eastern winter wren,155.Lanius ludovicianus, 312.La Rivers, Ira, on sage thrasher, 430.Larus delawarensis, 307.Laskey, Amelia R., on brown thrasher,362, 366, 369.on Carohna wren, 206, 215.on eastern mockingbird, 298, 299,302, 310, 317.Law, J. E., on black-eared nuthatch, 51,53.on Brownsville thrasher, 400.on Palmer's thrasher, 389.Lawrence, G. N., 411.lecontei, Toxostoma cinereum, 379.Toxostoma lecontei, 404, 411, 419.LeConte's thrasher, 411, 419.leuconucha, Sitta pygmaea, 46, 47, 54.leucophrys, Thryomanes bewickii, 182,200, 202.leucopterus, Mimus polyglottos, 314,316.leucosticta, Certhea familiaris, 69, 79.Lewis, H. F., on catbird, 345.on red-breasted nuthatch, 30.Ligon, J. S., on black-eared nuthatch, 49.Lincoln, F. C, on catbird, 329, 347.on eastern mockingbird, 297.Linsdale, J. M., on sage thrasher, 429.Linsdale, J. M., and Grinnell, Joseph,on black-eared nuthatch, 48.on California creeper, 76, 79.on California thrasher, 407.on pygmy nuthatch, 44, 45,on Vigors's wren, 196.Linsdale, J. M., Grinnell, Joseph, andDixon, Joseph, on Rocky Moun-tain nuthatch, 15.on Sierra creeper, 74, 76.on slender-billed nuthatch, 17.on Sonoma thrasher, 411.Lloyd, J. W., on catbird, 339.Lofberg, Lila M., on canyon wren, 280.Lomita wren, 216, 218.lomitensis, Thryothorus ludovicianus,216, 218.Long-billed marsh wren, 235.longicauda, Toxostoma rufum, 372, 374.Lophortyx californica, 378.ganibeli, 378,Louisiana marsh wren, 239, 246.Louisiana waterthrush, 149.Loveridge, Arthur, on brown creeper, 61.Lowery, George H., Jr., on Burleigh'sCarolina wren, 216, 217.on Carolina wren, 205.on Florida wren, 217.on Lomita wren, 218.
468 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMludovicianus, Lanius, 312.Thryothorus, 179.Thryothorus ludovicianus, 205, 216,218.Macoubrie, Jennie K., on catbird 333.Macoun, John, and Macoun, J. M.,on brown creeper, 59.Mailliard, Joseph, on Gambel's wren-tit,84.marianae, Telmatodytes palustns, 239,242, 246.Marian's marsh wren, 239, 242.marinensis, Thryomanes bewickii, 181,188, 191, 192, 196.Marshall, Joe T., Jr., on red-breastednuthatch, 31.Mason, Edwin A., on eastern housewren, 135.Marx, E. J. F., on eastern winter wren,153. , ^^^Mathews, F. S., on brown thrasher, 370.on prairie marsh wren, 256.May, J. B., on eastern winter wren, 157.Maynard, C. J., on Carolina wren, 230.on eastern mockingbird, 306.on Florida nuthatch, 14.on Florida wren, 217.McAtee, W. L., on brown creeper,'63.on brown thrasher, 364, 368.on catbird, 323, 324, 333, 334.on eastern house wren, 115, 120.on eastern winter wren, 153,on red-breasted nuthatch, 26.on white-breasted nuthatch, 5.McAtee, W. L., Beal, F. E. L., andKalmbach, E. R., on Carolina wren,209.McAtee, W. L., and Preble, E. A., onAlaska wren, 164, 167.McKechnie, F. B., and Kennard, F. H.,on brown creeper, 61.McClintock, Norman, on eastern housewren, 130.Mcllwraith, Thomas, on Carolina wren,208. , , ^ ^Mead, E. M., on white-breasted nut-hatch, 7.Mearns, E. A., 200.on Bryant's cactus wren, 231.on crissal thrasher, 421, 423-425.on LeConte's thrasher, 411, 412,415-418.on northern cactus wren, 220.on Rocky Mountain creeper, 71.on Rocky Mountain nuthatch, 14.mearnsi, Toxostoma jcinereum, 377,380, 382, 419.Mearns's thrasher, 380, 382.melanotis, Sitta pygmaea, 44, 46, 47, 55.meligerus. Troglodytes troglodytes, 159,161, 163. , . -Merriam, C. H., on desert region ofArizona, 412.on dipper, 107.
Merrill, J. C, on Brownsville thrasher,401, 402.on Sennett's thrasher, 376.on Texas wren, 184.Merritt, Maude, on western house wren,144, 145.Metcalf, E. T., on eastern house wren,126.Mexican creeper, 69, 72.Mexican dipper, 112, 113.Mexican white-breasted nuthatch, 21.mexicana, Sitta carolinensis, 12, 14, 15,21.mexicanus, Catherpes mexicanus, 276,278.Cinclus mexicanus, 112, 113.miamensis, Thryothorus ludovicianus,216, 217.Michael, C. W., on red-breasted nut-hatch, 24, 29.Michener, Harold and Josephine, onwestern mockingbird, 317, 320.Middleton, R. J., on catbird, 330.Miller, A. H., 388.on Gambel's wren-tit, 84, 92.Miller, E. V., on Texas wren, 184.on Vigors's wren, 192-196.Miller, H., on catbird, 346.Mimidae, 295.Mimus montanus, 377.polvglottos, 309, 386, 397.polyglottos leucopterus, 314, 316.polyglottos polyglottos, 295, 314.Mockingbird, eastern 295, 314.western, 314, 316,Mockingbirds, 295.montana, Certhea familiaris, 69, 71, 79.montanus, Mimus, 377.Oreoscoptes, 427.Montgomery, E. H., 150.Moore, Tilford, on brown thrasher, d7U,371.Morris, R. T., on catbird, 323, 343.Morrison, Mrs. D. M., on easternmockingbird, 304.Morse, Etta M., on catbird, 344.Moulton, C. E., on catbird, 330.Mousley, Henry, on catbird, 333.on short-billed marsh wren, 268,269, 271.Muir, John, on dipper, 97, 98, 103, 105,106, 108-110, 112.Munro, J. A., on dipper, 104.Murphey, E. E., on brown-headed nut-hatch, 36.on eastern mockingbird, 304.on eastern winter wren, 157.Musselman, T. E., on catbird, 345.Myers, Mr. and Mrs., H. R. 303, 304.Myiadestes townsendi, 386.Nannus, 161.hiemalis, 161.troglodytes, 161.troglodytes petrophilus, 170.
INDEX 469Nauman, E. D., on brown thrasher, 357,358.on catbird, 344.Nehrling, Henry, on brown thrasher,371.on eastern winter wren, 148.on dipper, 96, 111.on Unalaska wren, 169.Nelson, E. W., on Alaska wren, 164, 168.Nelson, E. W., and Palmer, T. S. ,onMexican white-breasted nuthatch, 21.nelsoni, Sitta carolinensis, 11, 14, 20.nesophilus, Thryomanes bewickii, 182,199, 200.Nevada creeper, 69, 79.Nevada nuthatch, 55.Newberry, W. C, on Gambel's wren-tit, 85.Nicasio wren, 181, 191.Nice, Margaret Morse, on Carohnawren, 214, 320.on common rock wren, 290.on Texas wren, 185.on western mockingbird, 320.Nichols, John T., 324.Nicholson, D. J., 244, 306.on Marian's marsh wren, 244.nigrescens, Certhea familiaris, 69, 71.Norris, J. P., 4, 49, 392.Northcutt, C. E., on eastern house wren,119.Northern cactus wren, 219.Norton, Daisy Dill, 121.Nuthatch, black-eared, 47.brown-headed, 13, 35.Florida, 12.gray-headed, 41, 42.Inyo, 19.Mexican white-breasted, 21.Nevada, 55.pygmy, 44.red-breasted, 22.Rocky Mountain, 14.San Lucas, 21.San Pedro, 20.slender-billed, 17.white-breasted, 1.white-naped, 54.Nuthatches, 1.Nuttall, Thomas, on brown creeper, 57.on Carolina wren, 212.on catbird, 346.Oberholser, H. C, 146, 147.on Alaska wren, 164.on Baird's wren, 187.on brown-headed nuthatch, 39.on Cedros Island wren, 202.on common rock wren, 289.on eastern house wren, 138.on Florida nuthatch, 13, 14.on Guadalupe wren, 203.on Kiska wren, 163.on Kodiak wren, 170.on Louisiana marsh wren, 246.on Ohio house wren, 146.on San Diego wren, 198.on Santa Cruz wren, 199.J75S066?48 31
Oberholser, H. C, on Seattle wren, 188.on Semidi wren, 169.on Stevenson's winter wren, 170.on Tanaga wren, 168.on Unalaska wren, 169.on Vigors's wren, 192.on Warner Valley WTen, 191.on western brown thrasher, 375.oberholseri, Sitta carolinensis, 22.Thryothorus ludovicianus, 218.Toxostoma curvirostre, 400.obsoletus, Salpinctes, 289.Salpinctes obsoletus, 284, 292, 293,295.occidentalis, Certhea familiaris, 69, 76.Ohio house wren, 140, 146.Oreoscoptes montanus, 427.Orford, W. M., on catbird, 345.Osgood, Wilfred H., on Kodiak wren,170.on Sierra creeper, 73, 74.Ouzel, water, 97.Overing, Robert, on eastern house wren,137.on catbird, 345.pacificus. Troglodytes troglodytes, 159,170.Packard, F. M., on black-eared nut-hatch, 48.on common rock wi"en, 285.on dipper. 111.on Rocky Mountain creeper, 72.on western house wren, 145.Pagophila alba, 297.Pallid wren-tit, 93.Palmer, E. A., 203, 204.Palmer, T.'S., and Nelson, E. W., onMexican white-breasted nuthatch, 21.palmeri, Toxostoma curvirostre, 385,386, 389, 398, 400.Palmer's thrasher, 389, 400.paludicola, Telmatodytes palustris, 239,261, 264.palustris, Cistothorus, 248.Telmatodytes, 241, 243.Telmatodytes palustris, 235, 239,244, 246, 248, 261.parkmanii, Troglodytes aedon, 113,140, 141.Troglodytes domesticus, 146.pasadenense, Toxostoma redivivum, 411.Passeriformes, 1.Peabody, P. B., on Rocky Mountainnuthatch, 15, 16.Pearse, Theed, on red-breasted nut-hatch, 28.on Seattle wren, 190.on western winter wren, 172, 175Pearson, T. G., on eastern mockingbird,311.Pearson, T. G., Brimley, C. S., andBrimley, H. H., on catbird, 323.Pemberton, J. R., 413.Pennock, C. J., 244.Perkins, S. E., on brown thrasher,. 355
470 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
Peters, H. S., on brown thrasher, 371.on Carolina wren, 213.on catbird, 345.on eastern house wren, 134.on white-breasted nuthatch, 10.Peters, J. L., 244.petrophilus, Nannus troglodytes, 170.Troglodytes troglodytes, 159, 169.phaea, Chamaea fasciata, 79, 93.Phillips, J. C, on catbird, 333.Philp, Gilbert, on eastern house wren,137.Pickens, A. L., on broA\Ti thrasher, 362.Pierce, W. M., on pallid WTen-tit, 95.Piers, Harry, on eastern winter wren,150.Pipilo consobrinus, 204.Piranga rubra, 312.Plateau thrasher, 398, 400.plesius, Telmatodytes palustris, 239,247, 259, 261, 264.Polioptilae, 179.polioptilus, Catherpes mexicanus, 279.polyglottos, Mimus, 309, 386, 397.Mimus polyglottos, 295, 314.Poole, E. L., on eastern house WTen, 128.Potter, L. B., on dipper. 111.on red-breasted nuthatch, 33.on sage thrasher, 427, 432.on western mockingbird, 316.Prairie marsh wren, 239, 248.Preble, E. A., and McAtee, W. L., onAlaska wren, 164, 167.puUus, Troglodytes troglodytes, 159,161.punctulatus, Catherpes mexicanus, 279,280.Purdum, C. C, on catbird, 330, 332.purus, Heleodytes brunneicapillus, 231,234.pusilla, Sitta pusilla, 35, 42.Spizella, 312.pygmaea, Sitta pygmaea, 44, 46, 47, 55.Pygmy nuthatch, 44.Rand, A. L., on Palmer's thrasher, 393.on California creeper, 78.on dipper, 100, 110.on Seattle wren, 189.on tule wren, 262.on western winter wren, 172.Ray, M. S., on common rock wren, 287.on Gambel's wren-tit, 84.Red-breasted nuthatch, 22.Red-headed woodpecker, 10.redivivum, Toxostoma redivivum, 402,410, 411.Rhoads, Mary C, on Carolina wren, 215.Rhyacophilus sp., 54.Ridgway, Robert, 428.on Alaska wren, 167.on Baird's wren, 186.on Bewick's wren, 177, 179, 180.on black-eared nuthatch, 51, 54.on California creeper, 77.on California thrasher, 405.on Cedros Island wren, 202.
Ridgway, Robert, on dipper, 103.on Florida wren, 217.on Gambel's wren-tit, 87.on Guadalupe rock wren, 293, 294.on Guadalupe wren, 203, 204.on LeConte's thrasher, 416.on long-billed marsh wren, 237.on Louisiana marsh wren, 246.on Marian's marsh wren, 243, 244.on pallid wren-tit, 94.on ruddy wren-tit, 80.on sage thrasher, 429.on San Lucas thrasher, 380.on slender-billed nuthatch, 17.on Texas wren, 183.on tule wren, 261.on western house wren, 143.on western marsh wren, 259.on western winter wren, 171.on white-throated wren, 276.Ridgway, Robert, Baird, S. F., andBrewer, T. M., on eastern winterwren, 151.Roads, Myra Katie, 177.Rock wren, common, 284.Rock wren, Guadalupe, 293.San Benito, 295.Rockwell, R. B., and Wetmore, Alex-ander, on common rock wren, 290.Rocky Mountain creeper, 69, 71.nuthatch, 14.Rowley, J. S., 20, 200.rubra, Piranga, 312.Ruddy wren-tit, 80, 93.rufula, Chamaea fasciata, 80, 93.rufum, Toxostoma, 302, 357.Toxostoma rufum, 351, 372.rufus, Harporhynchus, 386.Russell, Mary M., on catbird, 340.Sage, J. H., Bishop, L. B., and BUss,W. P., on catbird, 324.Sage thrasher, 377, 427.Salpinctes obsoletus, 289.obsoletus guadeloupensis, 292, 293.obsoletus obsoletus, 284, 292, 293,295.obsoletus tenuirostris, 292, 295.Samuels, E. A., on catbird, 337.San Benito rock wren, 292, 295.San Clemente wren, 182, 200.San Diego wren, 182, 198.San Ignacio cactus wren, 231, 234.San Joaquin wren, 182, 197.San Lucas cactus wren, 231, 233.nuthatch, 21.thrasher, 377, 382.San Pedro nuthatch, 20.wren-tit, 95.Sandahl, Mr., 109.Santa Cruz wren, 182, 199.Sargent, Grace Thompkins, 404, 408.Sass, H. R., on eastern mockingbird,308, 309.Saunders, A. A., 178.on brown creeper, 66.on brown thrasher, 353, 354, 359 368
INDEX 471Saunders, A. A., on brown-headed nut-hatch, 39.on Carolina wren, 213, 215.on catbird, 336, 337, 341-343.on dipper, 100.on eastern house wren, 132, 133.on eastern mockingbird, 310.on eastern winter wren, 155, 156.on long-billed marsh wren, 236.on prairie marsh wren, 258.on red-breasted nuthatch, 30.on Rocky Mountain nuthatch, 15.on short-billed marsh wren, 272,273.Schorger, A. W., on catbird, 331.Schwab, L. H., on eastern house wren,119.Sclater, W. L., on dipper, 97.on Rocky Mountain nuthatch, 15.Scott, W, E. D., on Bendire's thrasher,383, 386, 387.on canyon wren, 280, 283, 284.on Florida nuthatch, 12.on Marian's marsh wren, 243, 244.on northern cactus wren, 219, 225.on short-billed marsh wren, 274.Seattle wren, 181, 188.Selous, E., on brown creeper,-^56.Semidi wren, 159, 169.semidiensis. Troglodytes troglodytes,159, 169.Sennett, G. B., on Brownsville thrasher,400-402.on eastern house wren, 119.on Lomita wren, 218.on Sennett's thrasher, 375, 376,on Texas wren, 184.on western mockingbird, 319.sennetti, Toxostoma longirostre, 375.Sennett's thrasher, 375.Seton, E. T., on short-billed marshwren, 271.Shaw, H. S., Jr., on red-breasted nut-hatch. 24.Shaw, W. T., and Taylor, W. P., ondipper, 97.on western winter wren, 171, 175.Shelley, Lewis O., 371.Sherman, Althea R., on brown thrasher,351, 352, 356, 365.on eastern house wren, 114.Short-biUed marsh wren, 265.Shufeldt, R. W., on catbird, 327.on mockingbird, 310,Sierra creeper, 69, 73.SiUoway, P. M., on eastern winterwren, 152.on red-breasted nuthatch. 27.Simmons, G. F., on canyon wren, 279,281, 284.on Carolina wren, 208, 213.on Texas wren, 184, 185.on western mockingbird, 318, 319.Simpson, C. T., 306.on gray-headed nuthatch, 42.
Sitta atkinsi, 12, 13.canadensis, 22.carolinensis, 14, 15, 21.carolinensis aculeata, 12, 13, 14, 17,20, 21.carolinensis alexandrae, 12, 20.carolinensis atkinsi, 17.carolinensis carolinensis, 4, 11-13,17, 30.carolinensis cookei, 1.carolinensis lagunae, 12, 21.carolinensis mexicana, 12, 14, 15,21.carolinensis nelsoni, 11, 14, 20.carolinensis oberholseri, 22.carolinensis tenuissima, 12, 19.pusilla caniceps, 41, 42.pusilla pusilla, 35, 42.pygmaea canescens, 46, 55.pygmaea leuconucha, 46, 47, 54.pygmaea melanotis, 44, 46, 47, 55.pygmaea pygmaea, 44, 46, 47, 55.Sittidae, 1.Skaggs, M. B., on Bewick's wren, 178.Skinner, M. P., 97.on brown-headed nuthatch, 36, 40.on brown thrasher, 365,^367.on Carolina wren, 206.on dipper, 98, 105, 106.Skutch, Alexander F., on northerncactus wren, 224.Slender-billed nuthatch, 17.Slosson, Annie T., on catbird, 330.Smith, A. F., 325.Smith, F. J., on western winter wren,173.Smith, L. W., on eastern mockingbird,307.Smith, P. W., Jr., on common rockwren, 288.Smith, W. S., on eastern house wren,119,Sonoma thrasher, 410, 411.sonomae, Toxostoma redivivum, 410.Sooter, C. A., Cottam, Clarence, andWilliams, C. S., on sage thrasher, 432.Sooty wren, 182, 201.Southern creeper, 69, 71.winter wren, 159, 161.Spencer, Hugh, on catbird, 343.spilurus, Thryomanes bewickii, 182, 188,191, 192, 199, 200, 203,Spizella pusilla, 312.Sprunt, A., Jr., on eastern house wren,137.on eastern mockingbird, 295.Sprunt, Alexander, Jr., and Dingle, E.von S., on Marian's marsh wren,243.on Wayne's marsh wren, 246.Stackpole, Richard, and Taber, Wen-dell, on eastern winter wren, 154.Stafford, E. F., on Palmer's thrasher,390, 394, 396-398.
472 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMStanwood, Cordelia J., on brown creeper,62.on eastern winter wren, 149, 152.on red-breasted nuthatch, 22, 26,27.Steiger, J. A., on dipper, 100, 102, 103,107, 110.stellaris, Cistothorus platensis, 265.Stephens, Frank, 420.on LeConte's thrasher, 412, 417.Stevens, O. A., on brown creeper, 64.on red-breasted nuthatch, 28.on white-breasted nuthatch, 6.Stevenson, James, on eastern housewrens, 130.stevensoni, Troglodytes troglodytes,159.Stevenson's winter wren, 159, 170.Stiles, B. F., on mockingbird, 301.Stockard, C. R., on brown-headednuthatch, 37.on catbird, 323.Stoddard, H. L., 208.Stone, Witmer, on Carolina wren, 207,215.on catbird, 323, 331.on prairie marsh wren, 255.on short-billed marsh wren, 270.Stoner, Dayton, on brown creeper, 56,63.Stoner, E. A., on Sierra creeper, 75.Storer, T. I., 51.on northern cactus wren, 227.Storer, T. I., and Grinnell, Joseph, oncanyon wren, 282.on dipper, 97, 105, 108, 110.on pallid wren-tit, 95.on slender-billed nuthatch, 18, 19.on western winter wren, 171, 174.Streator, C. P., 204.Suckley, G., and Cooper, J. G., ondipper, 99.Suisun marsh wren, 239, 264.Sullivan, Maurice, on eastern mocking-bird, 297.Sutherland, Baigrie, 104.Sutton, G. M., on Bewick's wren, 176.on Carolina wren, 207, 214.on catbird, 344,on short-billed marsh wren, 270,272 273Sutton, G. M.', and Holt, E. G., oncatbird, 334.Sutton, G. M., and Van Tyne, Josselyn,on Baird's wren, 187, 188.on plateau thrasher, 399.on white-throated wren, 275.Swales, B. H., and Taverner, P. A., onred-breasted nuthatch, 33.Swarth, H. S., on Baird's wren, 187.on black-eared nuthatch, 52.on Bryant's cactus wren, 232.on dipper, 97.on Mexican creeper, 73.on Palmer's thrasher, 390.on Rocky Mountain nuthatch, 16.on sage thrasher, 433.
Swarth, H. S., on San Diego wren, 198.on San Joaquin wren, 197.on Santa Cruz wren, 199.on Suisun marsh wren, 264.on Vigors's wren, 192.on western house wren, 142.on western marsh wren, 261.Swarth, H. S., and Grinnell, Joseph, onSan Pedro wren-tit, 96.Taber, Wendell, on eastern winter wren,154, 156.on short-billed marsh wren, 266.Taber, Wendell, and Stackpole, Richard,on eastern winter wren, 154.Talmadge, R. R., on Nicasio wren, 191.Tanaga wren, 159, 168.tanagensis. Troglodytes troglodytes,159, 168.Tate, R. C, on black-eared nuthatch,52.on common rock wren, 289.Taverner, P. A., on catbird, 331.on western mockingbird, 316.Taverner, P. A., and Swales, B. H., oneastern winter wren, 154.on red-brested nuthatch, 33.on white-breasted nuthatch, 11.Taylor, G. C, on eastern mockingbird,305.Taylor, J. W., on eastern house wren,126.Taylor, W. P., on common rock wren,291.on sage thrasher, 429, 430.Taylor, W. P., and Shaw, W. T., ondipper, 97.on western winter wren, 171, 175.Teachenor, Dix, on western house wren,143.Telmatodytes palustris, 241, 243.palustris aestuarinus, 239, 264.palustris griseus, 239, 241, 245.palustris iliacus, 239, 247, 248, 259.palustris laingi, 239, 247.palustris marianae, 239, 242, 246.palustris paludicola, 239, 261, 264.palustris palustris, 235, 239, 244,246, 248, 261.palustris plesius, 239, 247, 259, 261,264.palustris thryophilus, 239, 246.palustris waynei, 239, 243, 244, 246.tenuirostris, Salpinctes obsoletus, 292,295.tenuissima, Sitta carolinensis, 12, 19.Terrill, L. McL, on short-billed marshwren, 266, 268.Texas wren, 181, 183.Thayer, John E., 247, 260, 262.Thrasher, Bendire's, 382, 383.brown, 351.Browmsville, 400.California, 402, 410.crissal, 420, 426.desert, 419.eastern brown, 372.
INDEX 473
Thi-asher, LeConte's, 411, 419.Mearns's, 380, 382.Palmer's, 389, 400.plateau, 398, 400.sage, 377, 427.San Lucas, 377, 382.Sennett's, 375.Sonoma, 410, 411.Trinidad, 426.western brown, 372, 374.Thrashers, 295.Thryomanes bewickii, 188, 190, 192,199.bewickii altus, 181, 183.bewickii atrestus, 181, 191.bewickii bewickii, 176, 181, 183,184.bewickii brevicauda, 182, 202.bewickii calophonus, 181, 188, 191.bewickii carbonarius, 201.bewickii catalinae, 182, 199.bewickii cerroensis, 182, 202.bewickii charienturus, 182, 187,192, 198, 199, 201-203.bewickii correctus, 182, 198-200,203.bewickii cryptus, 181, 183, 186,187.bewickii drymoecus, 182, 191, 192,197-199.bewickii eremophilus, 147, 181, 186.bewickii leucoplirys, 182, 200, 202.bewickii marinensis, 181, 188, 191,192, 196.bewickii nesophilus, 182, 199, 200,bewickii spilurus, 182, 188, 191,192, 199, 200, 203.thryophilus, Telmatodytes palustris,239, 246.Thryothorus ludovicianus, 179.ludovicianus berlandieri, 217-219.ludovicianus burleighi, 216.ludovicianus euronotus, 217.ludovicianus lomitensis, 216, 218.ludovicianus ludovicianus, 205, 216,218.ludovicianus miamensis, 216, 217.ludovicianus oberholseri, 218.Todd, H. O., Jr., 357.on eastern mockingbird, 301.Todd, W. E. Clyde, on Bewick's wren,176.Tomkins, I. R., on Worthington's marshwren, 241.Torrey, Bradford, on brown creeper, 67.on eastern winter wren, 155.on red-breasted nuthatch, 31.Townsend, C. W., 32.on brown thrasher, 368.on Carolina wren, 205, 214, 215.on catbird, 340.on prairie marsh wren, 248, 256.on red-breasted nuthatch, 28.on white-breasted nuthatch, 6.townsendi, Myiadestes, 386.
Toxostoma bendirei, 383, 394, 397.cinereum cinereum, 377, 382.cinereum curvirostre, 379.cinereum lecontei, 379.cinereum mearnsi, 377, 380, 382,419.curvirostre, 390, 394, 400.curvirostre celsum, 389, 398, 400.curvirostre oberholseri, 400.curvirostre palmeri, 385, 386, 389,398, 400.dorsale, 404.dorsale dorsale, 420, 426.dorsale trinitatis, 426.lecontei arenicola, 419.lecontei lecontei, 404, 411, 419.longirostre sennetti, 375.redivivum pasadenense, 411.redivivum redividum, 402, 410, 411.redivivum sonomae, 410.rufum, 302, 357.rufum longicauda, 372, 374.rufum rufum, 351, 372.Trautman, M. B., on catbird, 323, 324.on prairie marsh wren, 252, 258.Trine, Mrs. George W., on catbird, 344,345.Tringoides, sp 54.Trinidad thrasher, 426.trinitatis, Toxostoma dorsale, 426.troglodytes, Nannus, 161.Troglodytes aedon, 179.aedon aedon, 113, 140.aedon baldwini, 140, 146.aedon parkmanii, 113, 140, 141,brunneicoUis cahooni, 146, 147.brunneicoUis vorhiesi, 146.domestica, 113.domestica baldwini, 114.domesticus, 146.domesticus baldwini, 146.domesticus domesticus, 146,domesticus parkmanii, 146.troglodytes alascensis, 159, 163.troglodytes helleri, 159, 170.troglodytes hiemalis, 148, 159.troglodytes kiskensis, 159, 163.troglodytes meligerus, 159, 161, 163.troglodytes pacificus, 159, 170.troglodytes petrophilus, 159, 169.troglodytes pullus, 159, 161.troglodytes semidiensis, 159, 169.troglodytes stevensoni, 159.troglodytes tanagensis, 159, 168.Troglodytidae, 113, 127.Tule wren, 239, 261.Turner, L. M., on Aleutian wren, 162.Tyler, John G., on San Joaquin wren,197.on Sierra creeper, 76.on western mockingbird, 316.Tyler, W. M., on brown creeper, 56, 60,61, 65.on brown thrasher, 368.on catbird, 336.on eastern house wren, 131.on eastern mockingbird, 298.
474 BULLETIN 195, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
Tyler, W. M., on red-breasted nuthatch, 22.on red-breasted nuthatch, 22.on white-breasted nuthatch, 1, 9.Tyrannus tyrannus, 307, 313.Unalaska wren, 159, 169.unicolor, Cinclus mexicanus, 96, 112,113.Vaiden, M. G., on Carolina wren, 207on eastern mockingbird, 301, 307,308.on eastern winter wren, 158.on Florida nuthatch, 14.Van Denburgh, John, 409.Van Rossem, A. J., on black-eared nut-hatch, 47.on Inyo nuthatch, 19, 20.on Nevada creeper, 79.on Nevada nuthatch, 55.on pygmy nuthatch, 44.on San Benito rock wren, 295.on San Ignacio cactus wren, 234.on white-naped nuthatcli, 55.van Rossem, A. J., and Dickey, D. R..on common rock wren, 288.Van Tyne, Josselyn, and Sutton, G. M.,on Baird's wren, 187, 188.on plateau thrasher, 399.on white-throated wren, 276.Vigors's wren, 182, 192.Vorhies, Charles T., on dipper, 97.vorhiesi, Troglodytes brunneicoUis, 164.Walker, S. T., 124.Walklnshaw, Lawrence H., on short-billed marsh wren, 266, 268-270, 272.Warner Valley wren, 181, 191.Warren B. H., on, brown thrasher, 366.Water ouzel, 97.Waterthrush, Louisiana, 149.Wayne, A. T., on brown-headed nut-hatch, 37, 38.on brown thrasher, 355.on catbird, 345.on eastern mockingbird, 302, 313.on Florida nuthatch, 13.on long-billed marsh wren, 238.on Marian's marsh wren, 243.on short-billed marsh wren, 274.on Worthington's marsh wren, 241,242.wavnei, Telmatodytes palustris, 239,243, 244, 246.Wayne's marsh wren, 239, 246.Weilman, G. B., on red-breasted nut-hatch, 23.Welter, Wilfred A., on prairie marshwren, 249-251, 253-259.Western brown thrasher, 372, 374.Western house wren, 113, 140, 141.marsh wTen, 239, 259.mockingbird, 314, 316.winter wren, 159, 170.Weston, F. M., on eastern mockingbird,300, 308, 312.Wetherbee, Mrs. Kenneth B,, on cat-bird, 328.
Wetmore, Alexander, on canyon wren,280, 282.on Carolina wren, 214.on catbird, 329.on eastern house wren, 127.on Marian's marsh wren, 243.on sage thrasher, 432.on western brown thrasher, 375.Wetmore, Alexander, and Rockwell,R. B., on common rock wren, 290.Weydemeyer, Winton, on catbird, 340.on red-breasted nuthatches, 33.Wheeler, Mrs. A. L., on brown creeper,65.Wheeler, H. E., on Marian's marshwren, 242, 245.Wheelock, Irene G., on black-earednuthatch, 49-51.on California thrasher, 405.on crissal thrasher, 422-424.on dipper, 99.on northern cactus wren, 229.on Sierra creeper, 75.on tule wren, 262, 263.on western mockingbird, 318.on western winter wren, 173.White-breasted nuthatch, 1.White-naped nuthatch, 54.White-throated wren, 276.Whittle, Charles L., on dipper, 99.on eastern mockingbird, 311.on white-breasted nuthatch, 7.Whittle, Helen G., on catbird, 325, 327,338.on white-breasted nuthatch, 4.Widmann, O., on catbird, 331, 346.Wiggins, Mabel R., 153.Willard, Frank C, on Mexican creeper,72, 73.on Palmer's thrasher, 391.on Rocky Mountain nuthatch, 16.WiUiams, C. S., Cottam, Clarence, andSooter, C. A., on sage thrasher, 432.Williams, Helen P., on eastern housewren, 120.Williams, Laidlaw, on Vigors's wren,195.Williams, R. W., on white-breastednuthatch, 10.Wilson, Alexander, on brown creeper,57.on prairie marsh wren, 256.Wintle, E. D., on catbird, 324.Wood, H. B., on catbird, 333, 345.Wood, J. C, on catbird, 333.Woodpecker, red-headed, 10.Woods, R. S., 319.on California thrasher, 402.on northern cactus wren, 219.Worthington, W. W., 241.Worthington's marsh wren, 239, 241.Wren, Aleutian, 159, 161.Alaska, 159, 163.Alberta marsh, 239, 247.Apache, 146.Appalachian Bewick's, 181, 183.Baird's, 147, 181, 186.
INDEX 475Wren, banded cactus, 228.Bewick's, 176.Bryant's cactus, 231.Burleigh's Carolina, 216.Gaboon's, 147.canyon, 278.Carolina, 205.Catalina, 182, 199.Cedros Island, 182, 202.common rock, 284, 292.eastern house wren, 113.eastern winter, 148.Florida, 216, 217.Guadalupe, 182, 202.Guadalupe rock, 292, 293.hooded cactus, 228.Kiska, 159, 163.Kodiak, 159, 170.Lomita, 216, 218.long-billed marsh, 235.Louisiana marsh, 239, 246.Marian's marsh, 239, 242.Nicasio, 181, 191.northern cactus, 219.Ohio house, 140, 146.prairie marsh, 239, 248.San Benito rock. 292. 295.San Clemente, 182, 200.San Diego. 182, 198.San Ignacio cactus, 231, 234.San Joaquin, 182, 197.San Lucas cactus, 231, 233.Santa Cruz, 182, 199.Seattle, 181, 188.Semldi, 159, 169.
Wren, short-billed marsh, 265.sooty, 182, 201.southern winter, 159, 161.Stevenson's winter, 159, 170.Suisun marsh, 239, 264.Tanaga, 159, 168.Texas, 181, 183.tule, 239. 261.Unalaska, 159, 169.Vigors's 182, 192.Warner Valley, 181, 191.Wayne's marsh, 239, 246.western house, 113, 140, 141.western marsh, 239, 259.western winter, 159, 170.white-throated, 276.Worthington's marsh, 239, 241.Wrens, 113.Wren-tit, coast, 79, 93.Gambel's, 81, 93.intermediate, 93, 94.pallid, 93, 94.ruddy, 80, 93.San Pedro, 95.Wren-tits, 79,Wylie, E. A. G., on catbird, 334.Xantus, John, on San Lucas thrasher,377.
zelotes, Certhea familiaris, 69, 73, 77,79.Zirrer, Francis, on brown creeper, 65.on red-breasted nuthatch, 29.on white-breasted nut-hatch, 8.zonatus, Heleodytes, 228.
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